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^ppletons'  illorllr  Scrirs 
THE  REGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 

EDITED   BY 

H.  J.  MACKINDER,  M.A. 

Reader  in  Geography  in  the 
University  of  Oxford 


^pplctons'  Ulorlb  Scries 
THE  REGIONS  OF  THE  IVORLD 

EDITED    BY 

H.  J.  MACKINDER,  M.  A. 

Each  complete  in  One  Volume,  Large  8vo. 

BRITAIN  AND  THE   BRITISH  SEAS 

By  the  Editor 
WESTERN  EUROPE  AND  THE  MEDITER- 
RANEAN 

By  Elis^e  Reclus 

CENTRAL  EUROPE 

By  Joseph  Partsch,  Ph.D. 
SCANDINAVIA  AND  THE  ARCTIC  REGION 

By  Sir  Clements  R.  Markham,  K.C.B., 
F.R.S.,  President  Royal  Geog.  Soc 
THE  RUSSIAN   EMPIRE 

By  Prince  Krohotkin 
THE  NEARER  EAST 

By  D.  G.  Hogarth,  M.A. 
AFRICA 

By  J.  Scott  Kkltie,  LL.D.,  Sec.  R.  G.  S. 

INDIA 

By  Colonel  Sir  Thomas  Holdich,  K.C.I.E^ 
C.B.,  R.E. 
THE  FARTHER  EAST 

By  Archibald  Little  • 

NORTH  AMERICA 

By  Israel  C.  Russell,  LL.D. 
SOUTH  AMERICA 

By  John  C.  Branner,  LL.D. 
AUSTRALASIA   AND  ANTARCTICA 

By  H.  O.  Forbes,  LL.D. 


CENTRAL 
EUROPE 


BY 


JOSEPH   PARTSCH,  Ph.  D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    GEOGRAPHY    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY   OF    BRESLAU 


With  Maps  and  Diagrams 


KTHE-REGIONSS 


OF-THf:-  wuHLL' 


NEW    YORK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1903 


Copyright,  1903 
By  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Puhliahed  October.  190S 


EDITORIAL  NOTE 

Professor  Partsch's  manuscript  was  translated  by 
Miss  Clementina  Black.  It  was  found  to  be  too  long 
for  publication  in  an  English  series,  and  the  trans- 
lation was  therefore  curtailed  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Reeves, 
In  the  shortened  form  it  received  the  comments  of  the 
author,  and  the  proofs  were  finally  corrected  by  the 
editor,  who  is  therefore  alone  responsible  for  any 
errors  of  diction.  The  editor  desires  to  thank  Miss 
Black  and  Mr.  Reeves  for  their  most  efficient  help. 
Above  all  is  he  grateful  to  Professor  Partsch  for 
permitting  the  alteration  of  the  work  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  Anglo-Saxon  readers.  The  book 
will  be  published  in  German  in  the  original  form. 

H.J.M,. 


PREFACE 

When  Mr.  Mackinder  asked  me,  in  1897,  to  undertake 
the  volume  dealing  with  Central  Europe,  in  his  new 
Geographical  Series,  The  Regions  of  the  World,  he  and  I 
were  agreed  that,  in  order  to  secure  the  unity  of  the 
whole  work,  the  plan  and  division  of  the  material  must 
be  settled  by  the  editor  for  the  guidance  of  his  fellow- 
workers.  My  German  manuscript  was  completed  in 
September  1899,  but  when,  in  the  beginning  of  1901, 
the  English  translation  had  been  finished,  it  appeared 
that  it  had  run  to  rather  too  great  a  length.  Some 
abbreviations  had  to  be  made  in  order  to  reduce  it  to 
the  usual  size  of  the  books  proposed,  and  to  bring  its 
proportions  more  fully  into  accord  with  the  volume  on 
"  Britain  and  the  British  Seas,"  which  was  published  in 
the  early  part  of  1902.  For  German  readers,  the  German 
edition  now  in  preparation  will  retain  the  unabridged 
text  as  originally  written. 

The  diagrams  and  sketch  maps  in  the  text  were  pre- 
pared by  the  author,  and  executed  by  Messrs.  Darbishire 
and  Stanford.  The  coloured  maps  have  been  specially 
drawn  for  this  book  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Bartholomew. 

My  particular  thanks  are  due  to  all  the  gentlemen 
who  have  participated  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume, 
but  more  especially  to  Mr.  Mackinder  for  his  kindly 
interest  in  it. 

,  In  the  revision  of  the  English  manuscript,  and  of  the 
printed  proof,  my  son  Joseph,  stud,  jur.,  has  been  my 
faithful  helper.  J.  P. 

BRESLAU,ya«.  I,  1903. 


CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PACK 

I.  Position  and  World-Relation      .        .        .        .  i 

II.  General  Outlines  of  the  Physical  History     .  ii 

III.  The  Alps  and  the  German  Danube    .        .         .  i6 

IV.  The  Carpathians  and  the  Hungarian  Danube  47 
V.  The    Illyrian    Chains,    the    Balkan,    and   the 

Lower  Danube 57 

VI.  The     Block     Mountains    and    Tablelands     of 

Central  Europe 72 

VII.  The  North  German  Lowland  and  the  German 

Seas          .        .                 89 

VIII.  Climate 112 

IX.  The  Peoples 124 

X.  The  States 143 

XL  Economic  Geography i6i 

XII.  The  Alpine  Countries 203 

XIII.  The    Sudetic    and    Carpathian    Countries    of 

Austria 214 

XIV.  Hungary 221 

XV.  The  Illyrian  and  Balkan  Countries  .        .228 

XVI.  South  and  Central  Germany      ....  241 

XVII.  North  Germany .276 

XVIII.  The  Netherlands 298 

XIX.  Communications 313 

XX.  The     Geographical    Conditions    of    National 

Defence 326 

INDEX 343 

xi 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


MAPS 


I.  Central  Europe  ..... 
II.  The  Alps 

III.  Austria- Hungary.     Bathy-orographical 

IV.  Germany.     Orographical  . 
V.  Central  Europe.     Geological 

VI.  Central  Europe.     Ethnographical 


Frontispiece 

To  face  page      i8 

52 

76 

80 

m 


*^  Erratum  in  Map  vi.     The  blue  indicative  of  the  Romance  Stock  should  have 
extended  over  the  area  crossed  by  the  word  "  Wallons." 


DIAGRAMS  AND  MAPS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  The  Mountains  of  Central  Europe 10 

2.  The   Continental   Area   of  Central   Europe   in   Carboniferous 

Times    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .12 

3.  Section   through    the   Gotthard   showing  Folded    Mountains. 

(After  Heim  and  C.  Schmidt) 13 

3a.Section  through  the  Basin  of  the  Upper  Rhine  showing  Block 

Mountains.     (After  R.  Lepsius) 14 

^4.  The  Rhone  Glacier  in  the  Ice  Age.     (After  Falsan  et  Chantre)  21 

5.  Comparative  Heights  of  the  Land  and  Amount  of  Rainfall        .  23 

6.  Ancient  Valleys  of  the  Four  Forest  Cantons.     (After  Albert 

Heim) 29 

7.  Ancient  Valleys  of  the  Grisons.     (After  Albert  Heim)       .        .  34 

8.  Ancient  Transverse  Valleys  of  the  Northern  Alps      •         •         •  39 

9.  The  Conquest  of  the  Pinzgau  by  the  Salzach.    (After  Wahner).  40 

10.  Lakes  and  Moraines  of  the  German  Foreland  of  the  Alps         .  42 

11.  Entry  of  the  Danube  into  the  Jura 44 

12.  The  Lake  Region  of  the  High  Tatra.        ...         .        .  49 

xiii 


xiv  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  ^^°* 

13.  Section  of  the  Ground  under  Buda-Pest.     (After  Szabo)    .        .51 

14.  The  Hydrography  of  the  Karst 59 

15.  The  Underground  Drainage  of  Illyria.     (After  Supan)      .        .  61 

16.  Successive  Edges  of  the  Ice  Sheet  in  the  Last  Glacial  Epoch. 

(After  Keilhack) 9i 

17.  A  Prussian  Haff 95 

18.  The  Boddens  of  Pomerania        ...*•••  96 

19.  The  Forden  of  Holstein 97 

20.  The  Sky  of  Central  Europe 118 

21.  The  Rainfall  of  Central  Europe 119 

22.  Celtic  River  Names  in  Germany 125 

23.  Advance  of  the  Romans  into  Central  Europe     ....  126 

24.  The  Roman  Limes  of  Germania  and  Raetia       .        .        .        .127 

25.  Diagram  to  show  Nationalities J41 

26.  Diagram  to  show  Area  of  States 156 

27.  Diagram  to  show  Population  (a.d.  1900) 157 

28.  Northern  Limits  of  Maize,  the  Beech,  and  the  Vine  .        .        .165 

29.  The  Proportion  of  Area  under  Maize   to  Area  under  other 

Cereals 171 

30.  Proportion  of  Areas  under  Wheat  and  Rye        ....  173 

31.  The  Sugar  Production  of  the  World 175 

32.  Cultivation  of  Sugar  Beet  in  Central  Europe.     (After  Engel- 

brecht) I77 

33.  Cultivation  of  Potatoes  in  Central  Europe.    (After  Engelbrecht)  178 

34.  Brandy  and  Beer 180 

35.  Area  of  Wine  Lands 181 

36.  A  Mineral  Map  of  Central  Europe 184 

37.  The  Delta  of  the  Vistula 286 

38.  The  Waterways  of  Central  Europe 315 

39.  Loop  Tunnels  of  St.  Gotthard.     Approach  to  the  Great  Tunnel 

from  the  North 319 

39fl.Loop  Tunnels  of  St.  Gotthard.     Approach  to  the  Great  Tunnel 

from  the  South 319 

40.  Diagram  showing  Lines  of  Equal  Time  Distance  by  Express 

Train  from  Berlin.     (After  Mary  Krauske)  ....  322 

41.  The  Strongholds  for  the  Defence  of  Central  Europe         .        .  328 


CENTRAL    EUROPE 

CHAPTER   I 

POSITION  AND  WORLD-RELATION 

The  claim  of  Europe  to  be  regarded  as  an  independent 
continent  does  not  rest  upon  the  great  area  of  its  Russian 
territory,  with  the  long  boundary  towards  Asia,  but  rather 
upon  the  group  of  its  western  peninsulas  and  islands, 
enclosed  and  divided  by  gulfs.  These  many,  variously 
shaped  members  are,  however,  only  welded  into  a  geo- 
graphical whole  by  the  mass  of  Central  Europe  lying  in 
their  midst.  Its  well-marked  outline  and  independent 
destiny  are  due  to  the  important  fact  that  two  depressions 
in  the  body  of  the  mainland — the  Baltic  and  the  Pontic — 
have  had  access  to  the  ocean  through  the  sinking  of  their 
outlets.  On  the  line  where  these  two  slightly  salt  basins 
of  the  Baltic  and  Black  Seas  come  nearest  together,  the 
line  between  Pillau  and  Odessa,  the  continent  narrows 
suddenly  from  1600  miles  to  800.  Here,  also,  the  water- 
shed falls  exceptionally  to  less  than  500  feet,  and  it  was  an 
easy /natter  for  the  bold  Varangians  to  transport  their  skiffs 
from  sea  to  sea.  It  is  in  this  region  that  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  Central  Europe  must  be  sought.  Here  begin  sharp 
changes  of  distance  between  its  northern  and  southern 
coasts.  Narrowings  of  the  mainland  occur  between 
Stettin  and  Trieste,  between  Antwerp  and  Genoa,  and 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Seine  and  the  Rhone.  Much 
closer,  however  (250  miles),  is  the  approximation  of  the 
Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  north  of  the 
Pyrenees.    There  is  a  strong  temptation  to  transfer  thither 


2  CENTRAL    EUROPE 

the  other  boundary  of  Central  Europe.  Unquestionably 
France  has  a  certain  share  in  the  heart  of  the  continent. 
Yet  it  must  not  be  entirely  included.  Two  great  distinc- 
tions mark  it  off.  France  enjoys  contact  with  the  ex- 
panse of  the  open  ocean,  as  well  as  unimpeded  freedom 
of  communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  and  only  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  France  do 
the  characteristic  mountain  formations  of  Central  Europe 
appear  in  force. 

The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  configuration  is 
the  development  of  the  great  Alpine  system.  It  is  by 
the  Alps,  the  lUyrian  chains,  the  Carpathians,  and  the  Bal- 
kans that  the  divisions  of  Europe  are  fixed,  its  coun- 
tries held  asunder,  and  their  ethnological  and  political 
independence  assured.  By  them,  in  particular,  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  two  peninsulas  which  were  the 
favoured  scenes  of  ancient  culture  are  cut  off  from 
Central  Europe.  The  mighty  mountain  barrier,  from  the 
western  foot  of  the  Alps  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Balkans,  is  the  basis  of  Central  Europe.  Within  its 
domain  must  certainly  be  included  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Alps  and  Carpathians,  as  far  as  the  waters  flow  from 
these  heights.  The  Romans  reckoned  the  Rhine  and  the 
Vistula  as  the  boundaries  of  Germany.  These  frontiers 
may  have  corresponded  fairly  well  with  the  ethnography 
of  that  period,  but  they  will  not  suffice  for  the  physical 
geographer:  he  must  rest  his  boundaries  upon  features 
of  more  permanence. 

The  tract  of  country  lying  between  the  Alpine  ridges 
and  the  northern  seas  possesses  no  natural  unity.  It 
falls  into  two  bands,  of  which  the  southern,  that  of 
the  inferior  mountain  -  chains,  stretches  over  from 
France,  and  the  northern,  that  of  the  lowlands,  from 
Russia.  The  threefold  belt  of  Alps,  inferior  chains, 
and  northern  lowlands,  controls  the  landscape  and 
scenery  of  Central  Europe.  Wherever  one  of  these 
elements  dies  out.  Central  Europe  comes  to  an  end.  Its 
most  westerly  point  is  therefore  marked  by  the  western 
end  of  the  great  lowland  at  Dunkerque,  and  the  land- 


POSITION   AND   WORLD-RELATION  3 

mark  of  its  eastern  border  is  the  Polish  upland  at 
Sandomirz.  On  the  west,  the  Ardennes  and  the  Vosges, 
while  helping  to  enclose  the  basin  of  Paris,  situated 
to  west  of  Central  Europe,  suffer  the  Meuse  and 
the  Moselle  to  pass  through  and  to  meet  the  Rhine. 
These  mountains  and  the  Jura  chain,  a  branch  of  the 
Alps,  form  the  western  boundary  of  Central  Europe, 
broken  through  by  openings  for  the  intercourse  and  the 
warfare  of  nations.  On  the  east  the  plain  of  North 
Germany  lies  open  to  that  of  Russia.  Only  arbitrary 
boundary-lines  can  be  drawn  on  this  side.  The  middle 
Vistula,  which  flows  round  the  mountains  of  Sandomirz, 
might  be  regarded  as  a  natural  boundary,  but  not  the 
lower  Vistula.  The  lake  plateau  of  Pomerania  finds  its 
evident  continuation  in  that  of  East  Prussia,  and  the 
great  valley  of  the  VVarta  and  the  Netze,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Pomeranian  heights,  may  be  followed  along 
the  Vistula,  the  Narew,  and  the  Bobr,  into  the  vicinity  of 
the  Niemen. 

From  these  natural  boundaries  of  Central  Europe  the 
political  boundary  of  its  states  seldom  remains  far  distant. 
It  extends  beyond  them  in  German  Lorraine,  and  in  parts 
of  Bulgaria  and  Galicia  ;  it  remains  within  them  in  Poland 
and  the  peninsula  of  Jutland. 

The  wide  tract  of  land  between  Ostend  and  Geneva, 
between  Memel  and  Burgas,  forms  at  the  present  day  the 
core  of  the  European  group  of  states.  This  whole  tract 
only  came  into  the  foreground  of  general  history  in  the 
Midcke  Ages.  It  was  touched  only  in  part  by  the  influ- 
ences of  ancient  civilisation.  Only  from  the  two  ends  of 
the  mountain  barrier,  from  Massalia  and  from  Olbia,  the 
predecessor  of  Odessa,  did  Greek  commerce  put  forth 
weak  feelers  towards  the  centre  of  the  continent.  The 
Romans  were  the  first  to  surmount  the  Alps.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  Danube  they  long  ruled  the  Rhenish 
mountains;  they  ruled  Transylvania  for  150  years,  and 
only  the  early  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius  prevented  the 
subjugation  of  Bohemia.  This  event  was  the  turning- 
point  that   left   the  Central    European  dominion  of  the 


4  CENTRAL  EUROPE 

Romans  uncompleted,  anjd  allowed  the  Germanic  races  to 
gather  strength  and  to  break  into  fragments  the  Roman 
Empire.  Not  until  this  effective  interposition  of  the 
Teutonic  peoples  does  European  history  begin.  Until 
that  time  the  western  countries  of  Europe,  including  the 
British  Isles,  seemed  destined  to  a  meagre  provincial  life 
as  mere  dependencies  of  the  Mediterranean  empire,  while 
those  of  the  east  were  entirely  withdrawn  from  the 
horizon  of  the  civilised  world.  With  the  entrance  of 
Central  Europe  into  history  begins  the  foundation  of  the 
European  group  of  states. 

The  leading  place  among  them  was  not,  however, 
reserved  to  the  Teutons  alone.  The  great  extent  of  their 
conquests  consumed  the  diminishing  powers  of  the 
wandering  Germanic  peoples.  Even  the  renewed  growth 
of  strength  in  what  remained  of  their  old  home,  between 
the  Alps  and  the  North  Sea,  the  Elbe  and  the  Meuse,. 
did  not  suffice  to  make  up  the  losses  of  the  long  migra- 
tory period.  Not  only  the  lowlands  of  the  east,  but 
also  the  interior  of  Bohemia  were  invaded  by  the  Slavs,. 
and  the  Hungarian  plain  by  the  Magyars.  Thus,  evea 
at  this  day,  may  be  found  in  the  heart  of  the  continent. 
Teutons,  Slavs,  and  peoples  of  Romance  stock,  as  well 
as  a  powerful  outpost  of  the  Uralo-Altaic  races.  The 
emulation  and  the  conflicts  of  these  various  races  form  a 
substantial  part  of  European  history.  Upon  the  strength 
and  independence  of  the  states  founded  by  them  depends 
the  equilibrium  of  Europe — the  welfare  and  stability  of 
the  European  group  of  powers.  The  idea  that  Europe 
might  one  day  be  half  Jacobin  and  half  Cossack  was  a 
chimera  to  which  the  future  will  never  return.  True  it  is, 
undoubtedly,  that  the  social  and  political  dimensions  of 
life  grow  gradually  larger.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
colossal  empires  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  whose  future 
balance  will  only  be  maintained  by  the  development  of  the 
United  States  and  by  the  vast  population  of  Eastern  Asia, 
are  destined  gradually  to  subjugate  or  absolutely  to  absorb 
the  less  spacious  powers  of  Central  Europe.  The  course 
of  the  world's  history  does  but  warn  the  Central  European 


POSITION   AND   WORLD-RELATION  5 

states  to  draw  socially  closer  together,  and  to  subordinate 
lesser  dividing  political  interests  to  the  greater  aims  of 
maintaining  to  the  full  their  independence,  and  that 
wealth  of  social  and  intellectual  culture  which  has  given  to 
Europe  the  first  place  among  the  continents  of  the  world. 

This  faith  in  the  future  is  strengthened  by  a  glance  at 
the  natural  endowments  of  Central  Europe,  and  at  the 
additional  value  given  to  them  by  the  labour  of  its  peoples. 
Its  extent  is  not  insignificant  ;  it  occupies  a  sixth  part  of 
the  surface  of  Europe,  and  contains  one-third  of  the  whole 
population  of  the  continent.  Its  position,  between  42° 
and  55°  north,  ensures  to  the  whole  tract  a  climate  which 
inclines  the  inhabitants  to  activity,  and  also  rewards  their 
pains.  The  variety  of  conformation  creates  a  group  of 
localities,  differing  greatly  as  to  warmth  and  moisture ; 
and  these  differences,  co-operating  with  considerable 
variations  of  soil,  produce,  in  one  part  or  another,  condi- 
tions favourable  to  every  branch  of  cultivation.  Wood- 
lands rich  in  game,  excellent  corn-lands,  grazing  for 
horses,  low-lying  meadows  and  mountain  pastures  for  the 
finest  of  live  stock,  and  orchards  and  vineyards  succeed  one 
another  ;  and  the  portions  which,  owing  to  altitude,  sterile 
and  rocky  soil,  sand-drifts,  want  of  water  or  marshiness, 
are  permanently  unprofitable,  are  but  limited  in  extent. 
In  the  north-west  of  Germany  there  are  wide  tracts  of  bog 
and  heath,  while  of  the  great  inland  district  east  of  the 
Elbe,  and  of  the  plain  of  Hungary,  a  considerable  part  is 
sandy  and  naturally  unproductive.  The  soil,  however,  is, 
almost  *  everywhere,  susceptible  of  improvement.  By 
thorough  culture,  good  irrigation,  and  the  addition  of 
valuable  chemicals  to  develop  its  nutritive  qualities,  it 
has  been  so  much  improved,  that,  in  many  places,  its 
original  poverty  can  hardly  be  traced  beneath  the  rich 
cultivation.  In  other  points,  as  in  this,  the  natural  gifts  of 
Central  Europe  are  not  in  general  brilliant  and  super- 
abundant, but  solid  and  capable  of  being  developed  by 
earnest  endeavour. 

Central  Europe  has  no  superfluity  of  minerals,  least  of 
all  of  precious  metals,  but  the  German  miner  has  dealt 


6  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

so  perseveringly  and  so  circumspectly  with  the  modest 
mineral  wealth  allotted  to  him,  that  in  matters  of  mining 
and  metallurgy  he  has  been  the  teacher  of  other  nations. 
Fossil  fuels  and  iron  alone,  which  supply  laborious 
nations  with  the  best  foundation  for  industrial  progress, 
are  present  in  rich  abundance. 

The  rivers  of  Central  Europe  are  neither  so  free  from 
obstacles  as  the  Seine  and  the  Thames,  nor  so  secure  from 
obstruction  by  frost  ;  but  care  and  attention  have  made 
them  navigable  for  the  most  active  internal  commerce  of  the 
continent,  and  rendered  them  a  very  valuable  complement 
of  the  extensive  network  of  railways.  Internal  com- 
munication being  thus  developed,  it  becomes  possible  to 
utilise  to  the  utmost  the  advantages  of  a  position  in  the 
midst  of  the  countries  of  the  continent,  and  in  close 
contact  with  all  the  actively  progressive  nations.  With  all 
of  these  Central  Europe  is  engaged  in  a  constant  inter- 
change of  products  and  labour. 

Unquestionably,  the  violent  interference  of  neighbours 
in  her  affairs  has  also  caused  Central  Europe  often  enough 
to  feel  severely  that  there  are  drawbacks  in  being  thus 
enclosed  by  other  nations.  The  land  being  broken  up 
by  complex  mountain  systems  and  by  rivers  flowing  in 
different  directions,  political  division,  for  a  time,  became 
excessive,  and  long  prevented  sufficient  accumulation  of 
strength  for  effectually  repelling  such  interference,  even 
when  it  came  from  lesser  powers.  Only  a  conviction 
that  no  sacrifice  is  too  great  for  the  maintenance  of 
independence  and  a  willingness  to  accept  heavy  military 
burdens  can  save  the  peoples  of  Central  Europe  from  the 
recurrence  of  this  danger.  Certain  it  is  that  these  peoples, 
with  their  flower  of  physical  strength  hardened  by  climate 
and  steeled  by  toil,  have  the  power,  if  they  earnestly  choose 
to  exercise  it,  of  securing  peace  to  all  Europe. 

In  this  peace  Central  Europe  herself  has  the  most 
vital  interest,  for  only  while  peace  continues  can  Central 
Europe  hope  to  lighten,  and  even,  by  the  expenditure  of 
much  exertion,  to  remove  the  pressure  of  an  additional 
drawback   belonging    to    her     central    position — that    of 


POSITION   AND   WORLD-RELATION  7 

exclusion  from  the  open  ocean.  The  Black  Sea,  indeed, 
provides  the  lower  districts  of  the  Danube  with  an 
important  channel  for  the  exchange  of  their  agricultural 
products  against  the  wares  of  the  outer  world.  To 
Hungary  also  it  has  become  of  growing  importance, 
since  the  difficulties  of  navigation  at  the  Iron  Gates  were 
overcome.  But  even  for  Hungary,  and  still  more  for 
Austria,  approach  to  the  inner  corner  of  the  Adriatic  is 
of  more  value  than  access  to  the  remote  cul-de-sac  of  the 
Pontic  basin.  If  the  Danubian  Empire  is  to  retain  its 
position  in  the  world,  Trieste  and  Fiume  are  indispensable 
outlets.  Spalato  and  Ragusa,  too,  are  destined  to  become 
so.  In  our  days  the  Dalmatian  shore  must  not  remain  a 
coast  with  no  country  behind  it.  But  however  brilliantly 
the  prospects  opening  here  may  be  fulfilled,  the  Adriatic 
itself  will  still  be  but  a  branch  of  an  inland  sea,  whence 
the  ways  of  access  to  the  ocean  remain  long,  narrow,  and 
held  by  other  hands. 

To  the  greater  part  of  Central  Europe  the  access  of 
Germany  to  the  sea  is  of  infinitely  more  importance. 
This  access  is  modest  enough.  The  maritime  position  of 
Germany  is  by  nature  more  unfavourable  than  that  of  any 
other  country  of  Western  Europe.  As  far  as  the  trade  of  the 
world  is  concerned,  the  Baltic  Sea,  even  since  the  opening 
of  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  Canal,  can  only  be  considered 
as  holding  a  secondary  place.  It  is  only  the  ports  of 
the  North  Sea  whose  situation  enables  them  to  compete 
directly'upon  the  Atlantic — the  principal  stage  of  inter- 
national commerce — with  the  modern  maritime  nations. 
But  enterprise,  perseverance,  and  integrity  have  so  utilised 
the  modest  opportunities  allotted  by  nature,  that  the 
German  merchant-service  stands  second  in  Europe  only 
to  that  of  Britain,  while  France  and  Spain,  two  countries 
far  more  favoured  in  this  respect  by  nature,  have  been 
far  outstripped  in  commercial  development  by  Germany. 
If  we  add  the  old  and  well-established  sea  traffic  of 
Holland,  we  shall  find  the  position  of  Central  Europe  in 
international  commerce  far  more  favourable  than  could  be 
expected  from  the  extent,  position,  and  nature  of  its  coast- 


8  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

lines.  The  Netherlands  have  retained  valuable  colonial 
possessions,  won  in  their  brilliant  period  of  maritime 
supremacy,  and  brought  by  intelligent  tendance  to  a  high 
degree  of  agricultural  prosperity.  Late  in  the  day,  when 
the  world  had  already  been  allotted,  Germany  too  entered 
the  field  of  colonial  enterprise,  and  now  devotes  herself  to 
systematic  development  of  those  rather  poorly  endowed 
foreign  possessions  over  which  her  flag  flies. 

When  we  perceive  with  what  activity  the  peoples  of 
Central  Europe  labour  to  develop  the  natural  gifts  of  their 
countries,  we  are  confirmed  in  the  conviction  that  this 
centre  of  Europe  is  great  enough,  and  favoured  enough 
by  position,  climate,  nature,  and  conformation,  to  hold  its 
independent  place  for  ever  among  the  great  powers  of  the 
world.  This  conviction  and  a  perception  of  how  desirable 
is  peaceful  co-operation  between  the  natural  and  national 
forces  here  lying  side  by  side,  can  have  no  better  basis 
than  a  consideration  of  the  territory,  which,  despite  all 
internal  variations,  despite  all  links  with  neighbour 
territories,  will  be  found  to  possess  marked  features  of 
geographical  unity. 

We  have  to  consider  a  superficial  area  of  626,000 
square  miles,  inhabited  by  over  131  millions  of  human 
beings,  and  in  order  to  get  a  connected  and  comprehensive 
view  of  facts,  we  shall  find  ourselves  compelled  from  time 
to  time  to  extend  our  examination  across  the  borders  of 
adjoining  countries  into  France,  Denmark,  and  Russia. 

Note  on  Authorities. — B.  G.  Mendelssohn's  "German  Europe,"  1836, 
gives  an  able  general  view  of  Central  Europe,  illuminated  by  historical 
insight. 

The  Ldnderkunde  von  Europa,  edited  by  A.  Kirchhoff,  1 887-1 893, 
contains  a  "  Physical  Sketch  of  Central  Europe,"  by  A.  Penck.  In  this 
standard  work,  also,  the  German  Empire,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium, 
and  Luxemburg,  are  dealt  with  by  Penck  ;  Austria  and  Hungary  by 
A.  Supan  ;  Roumania  by  Paul  Lehmann  ;  and  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and 
Montenegro  by  Theobald  Fischer.  In  the  description  of  Switzerland 
Egli  was  assisted  by  the  geologist,  A.  Heim,  and  by  Billwiller,  the 
expert  upon  climate. 

The  most  precise  and  trustworthy  statistical  information  is  given 
annually  by  the  Gothaische  Genealogische  Hofkalender. 


POSITION   AND  WORLD-RELATION  9 

Good  general  maps  of  the  countries  of  Central  Europe  are  to  be  found 
in  the  large  atlases  by  Stieler  (Gotha),  Debes  (Leipzig),  and  Kiepert 
(Berlin). 

Carl  Vogel's  map  of  the  German  Empire,  on  the  scale  of  1  :  500000 
is  a  masterpiece  of  cartographic  art.  Upon  it  is  founded  Richard 
Lepsius's  Geological  Map  of  the  German  Empire,  on  the  same  scale. 
In  both  these  maps  the  territories  of  neighbouring  countries  are  drawa 
and  coloured. 


10 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


CHAPTER   II 

GENERAL  OUTLINES  OF  THE   PHYSICAL   HISTORY 

Unity  does  not  exclude  division.  The  separation  of 
the  natural  provinces  of  Central  Europe  arises  from 
the  course  of  evolution  through  which  its  surface  has 
passed.  The  first  stages,  indeed,  are  obscure.  The 
Carboniferous  Age  affords  the  earliest  glimpse  of  a  low- 
lying  continent  recently  emerged  from  the  sea  (Fig.  2). 
The  position  of  the  marine  strata  in  the  coal-deposits 
of  Carinthia,  Upper  Silesia,  Westphalia,  Belgium,  and 
northern  France  shows  how  the  coast -line  of  this 
land  —  upon  which  the  coal -plants  grew  —  fluctuated 
during  the  period  when  the  coal-measures  of  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  Thuringia,  the  Saar,  the  Black  Forest,  and  the 
Western  Alps  were  forming  in  its  interior  basins.  This 
continent  was  the  workshop  in  which  great  mountains 
were  fashioned.  The  crust  of  the  earth  shrank  to- 
gether in^  folds  of  Alpine  altitude.  But  the  long  course 
of  time  once  more  destroyed  these  heights,  and  their 
trace  can  only  be  followed  by  means  of  the  steeply- 
inclined  strata  marking  their  now  level  bases.  From 
the  Cevennes  to  the  Hartz,  the  old  deposits  strike  con- 
sistently to  the  north-east.  In  Belgium  alone  their  trend 
turns  to  the  north-west,  parallel  with  the  old  folding  of 
Brittany,  while  through  the  greater  part  of  the  district 
of  the  Sudetes,  it  runs  south-eastward. 

Long  periods  followed,  in  which  slight  risings  and 
depressions  allowed  the  sea  to  flow  in  now  upon  one, 
now  upon  another  part  of  the  Central  European  con- 
tinent ;  triassic,  Jurassic,  and  cretaceous  formations  spread 
their  deposits  over  wide  and  varying  regions,  and  when 
the    sea    once    more    retreated    these    deposits    were    in 


12 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


part  destroyed  and  in  part  remained  to  cover  large  tracts 
of  tableland.  These  tablelands  at  one  time  extended 
unbroken  from  France  to  Central  Germany,  from  the 
upper  Moselle  to  the  Saale,  and  from  the  middle 
reaches  of  the  Weser  to  the  Danube.  From  northern 
Bohemia,  too,  at  one  period  a  great  plateau  of  sand- 
stone, no  less  uniform  than  the  plain  of  North  Bulgaria, 
stretched  into  the  adjoining  parts  of  Saxony  and  Silesia. 


/f^Coixtm^ntcU  Area  >»iZA  CoalOa 


-^  Zorxcji  o/Ll  Uvral  Cua./  »fi 


Fig.  2. — The  Continental  Area  of  Central  Europe  in  Carboniferous  Times. 


The  further  shaping  of  the  land,  however,  was  not 
left*  solely  to  the  action  of  the  waters  ;  disturbances  of 
the  earth  occurred  in  the  Tertiary  Period  and  produced 
decisive  effects  upon  the  configuration  of  the  whole  sur- 
face. All  parts  were  not  equally  affected  ;  all  did  not 
yield  equally  to  the  forces  brought  to  bear  upon  them.  A 
contrast  was  produced  between  the  north  and  the  south. 
The  southern  part  of  Central  Europe  was  puckered 
up  by  the  gradual  contraction  of  the  earth's  crust 
into  curved  mountain-chains,  while  at  the  same  time 
marked   irregularity   was  imparted  to  its  contour  by  the 


OUTLINES   OF   THE    PHYSICAL   HISTORY     13 

breaking  away  of  great  areas  of  depression  on  the  con- 
cave side  of  the  mountain  curves.  Quantities  of  volcanic 
rock  were  thrown  up  from  the  clefts  around  the  deep 
hollow  of  the  Hungarian  plain  and  formed  in  some 
places  gentle  hills  and  in  others  considerable  mountains. 
In  the  Middle  Tertiary  (Miocene)  Period,  while  the 
folding  of  the  mountains  was    still   going   on,   the  great 


A7.  yv/napa//e 


Wasen 


Hospice  >    'Soitt/v 

A/to/o 


Porpfu/ry 


Sericile  arid  Norn, 
-blende  Sc^ccst 


Trcasstc 


\\\\\\N   Gneiss  and  Mica  Schist  |t— --t|  Jurassic 

K  I  £ocenje 


Fig.  3. — Section  through  the  Gotthard  showing  Folded  Mountains. 

Alpine  and  Carpathian  ring  was  surrounded  on  its  outer 
side  by  a  sea  which  filled  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  and 
Saone,  covered  the  high  plateaux  of  Switzerland,  Bavaria, 
and  Austria,  flowed  across  Moravia,  and  passing  through 
the  Moravian  Gate  into  Galicia,  gained  an  outlet,  by 
way  of  the  Bukowina  and  Bessarabia,  into  the  Pontic 
basin. 

This  sea,  whose  dry  bed  is  furrowed  at  the  present 
day  by  great  rivers,  cut  off  the  Alps  and  Carpathians 
from   the  more  northerly  portion  of  Europe,    for  which 


H 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


a  different  fate  was  in  store.  No  mountain  foldings 
befell  it  ;  on  the  contrary  large  and  deep  fractures, 
running  in  fairly  straight  lines,  cut  it  up  into  great 
blocks,  each  of  which  moved  independently  and  rose 
or  fell  in  varying  ways  before  finally  settling  down  at 
very  unequal  altitudes.  The  block  traversed  by  the  Lower 
Rhine  was  divided  by  a  great  crevasse  from  the  district 
of  the  Upper   Rhine.     This  district  itself  was  broken  by 


H-e-st. 
Vasffes 

Mohneff 


East 


J'la.tn,  o/" i/ie  l/pjoer Hh-Uiv 


BlcicH  Forest 

Fe/ofhery 


Carboniferous 
|°o°  o°  o|     Lotver  Triassic 

(Burner-  Jcirul.  .ttorve) 

\\\\\\\\    MiftdJerricussic 

tA/usi/^etfteUfiJ 

[-L^EI     Upper  Tria^stc 
(Kenf3f>r) 


Longer  t/itrussic,  L  iasstc 


MicUUe  J^urassLC 
UpperJltrassio 
t  .•"."■••  J     Tertiary 
r^'^^'^1    AlUcviiurv 
B^^g    Eruptive ftoc/ts 


Fig.  3a. — Section  through  the  basin  of  the  Upper  Rhine 
showing  Block  Mountains. 

fissures  that  ran  nearly  due  south  :  its  middle  portion 
sank  into  a  hollow  and  formed  the  great  rift-valley  of 
the  Upper  Rhine,  between  the  two  high-lying  blocks  of 
the  Vosges  and  the  Black  Forest.     (Fig.  3a) 

Exactly  the  reverse  occurred  in  the  case  of  the 
Thuringian  forest,  which  rose  on  high  like  a  narrow 
eyrie  between  the  sunken  plains  of  Franconia  and 
Thuringia.  The  interior  of  Bohemia  formed  a  depres- 
sion along  cracks  that  cut  off  the  southern  border  of 
the  Erzgebirge  and  the  Sudetes.  A  further  character 
of  variety  was  given  to  the  contour  of  the  land  in  this 
part  by  volcanic  influences.     A  broad   belt  of   trachytic 


OUTLINES   OF   THE    PHYSICAL  HISTORY     15 

and  basaltic  elevations  runs  through  the  mountains 
of  the  Lower  Rhine  to  Hesse,  and  another  zone  of 
basaltic  heights  from  North  Bohemia,  through  Lusatia 
into  Silesia.  The  surface  of  this  fractured  country 
did  not,  however,  present  an  altogether  irregular  aspect. 
Some  signs  of  unity  and  of  mass  were  imparted  by 
the  prevalence  of  two  main  lines  of  direction  (N.-W. 
and  N.-E.)  in  the  network  of  faultings,  and  still  more 
decidedly  by  the  clear  differentiation  of  three  zones. 
The  two  great  southerly  basins — Bohemia  and  South 
Germany — in  which  the  waters  of  the  Elbe  and  the 
Rhine  are  collected,  are  divided  from  the  still  lower- 
lying  regions  of  the  north  by  a  central  belt  of  high 
ridges  stretching  from  the  Ardennes  to  the  Sudetic 
Mountains. 

The  North  German  lowland  —  although  its  hidden 
fundamental  structures  belong  to  the  block  country  of 
Central  Germany  —  must  be  regarded  as  a  third  in- 
dependent division  of  Central  Europe.  Its  surface  was 
levelled  by  vast  later  deposits,  and  the  influences  of  the 
great  Glacial  Period  gave  it  a  character  of  its  own.  The 
invasion  of  inland  ice  from  Scandinavia  helped  to  build 
up  the  diluvial  ridges,  and  the  waters  into  which  this  ice 
dissolved  dug  out  the  broad  valleys  through  which  the 
lesser  rivers  of  to-day  take  a  great  part  of  their  course. 

Note  on  Authorities. — For  general  conceptions — such  as  the  differ- 
ence between  Block  mountains  and  Folded  mountains — the  English 
reader  will  do  well  to  consult  W.  M.  Davis's  "  Physical  Geography." 

Special  information  as  to  the  physical  development  of  Central  Europe 
may  be  found,  not  only  in  Penck  {pp.  cit.\  but  more  particularly  in 
M.  Neumayr's  "  History  of  the  Earth,"  second  edition,  edited  by  V.  Uhlig, 
1895. 

The  changes  in  the  divisions  of  land  and  water  are  traced  as  closely 
as  possible  throughout  all  the  epochs  in  Lethcea  Geognostica,  begun  by 
F.  Romer,  in  1880,  and  now  published  by  Fritz  Freeh. 

All  these  works  have  been  affected  by  the  stimulating  and  guiding 
influence  of  Ed.  Suess's  Das  Antlitz  der  Erde  ("The  Face  of  the 
Globe"). 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE 

An  attempt  was  at  one  time  made  to  explain  the  forma- 
tion of  mountains  by  the  hypothesis  of  perpendicular 
upheavals  along  straight  lines.  Of  all  mountains  the 
Alps  can  least  be  made  to  accord  with  such  a  theory. 
Their  great  curve  taking  every  conceivable  direction,  first 
led  to  the  recognition  of  the  characteristics  that  mark  a 
one-sided,  folded  mountain  chain  : — the  movement  from 
the  inner  side  of  the  curve,  the  thrusting  forward  of  the 
fold  towards  the  outer  edge,  the  encroachment  of  that 
edge  upon  the  land  beyond,  the  arresting  power  of  old 
blocks  of  upland,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fracture 
of  strata  on  the  inner  side,  the  formation  of  long  lines 
of  crevasse,  and  the  drop  of  great  areas  of  depression 
to  form  the  plain  of  the  Po. 

But  the  Alps  also  taught  us  how  great  a  part  in 
developing  the  physiognomy  of  mountains  is  played  by 
the  destructive  forces  of  the  atmosphere.  The  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  by  carrying  away  great  layers  of  Jurassic 
and  Triassic  limestones,  and  so  denuding  the  highest 
mountain  belt  of  its  more  recent  covering  formations,  has 
imparted  to  the  scenery  of  the  Alps  one  of  its  most  charac- 
teristic features,  the  exposure  of  a  broad  Central  Zone  of  very 
ancient  rocks — granite,  gneiss,  and  crystalline  schists.  It 
may  be  calculated  that  at  one  time  a  mass  of  deposits 
more  than  6000  feet  thick  arched  over  the  mighty  massifs 
of  the  central  zone,  and  that  but  for  denudation  the  Alps 
would  rear  their  heads  to  a  height  of  above  20,000  feet. 
At  more  than  one  point,  in  crossing  the  watershed  of  the 
Alps,  we  may  still  behold  light  grey  caps  of  Triassic  or 

Jurassic  limestone  crowning  the  highest  points  above  us. 

16 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  17 

In  the  Grisons,  indeed,  we  may  cross  from  the  Rhine  to 
the  Engadine,  and  from  the  Engadine  into  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Adda  or  the  Adige,  without  ever  setting  foot 
on  primitive  rocks.  This,  however,  is  exceptional.  In 
general  the  denudation  has  been  so  complete  that  the 
central  zone  of  primitive  formations  stands  out  distinctly 
from  the  adjacent  outer  zones. 

These  outer  mountains  have  been  called  the  Lime- 
stone Alps.  In  the  Eastern  Alps  the  central  zone  of 
crystalline  schists  is  sharply  cut  off  by  great  longitudinal 
valleys  from  the  proud  walls  of  Triassic  Hmestone,  ranged 
in  parallel  order  on  the  north  and  south.  The  especial 
charm  of  the  Eastern  Alps  lies  in  the  circumstance  that, 
after  first  beholding  the  majesty  and  wild  beauty  of  high 
mountains  among  the  pale  limestone  barriers  of  the 
northern  chain,  we  come  next  to  the  great  longitudinal 
valley  from  Arlberg  to  Semmering,  full  of  life,  friendly 
habitations,  and  busy  traffic,  whence,  rising  by  the  trans- 
versal valleys  of  the  central  zone,  we  ascend  into  the 
world  of  glaciers  that  girdle  the  summits  with  frozen 
pendants  and  crown  them  with  diadems  of  snow.  Again, 
having  descended  from  these  heights  towards  the  south, 
we  pause  amid  the  vineyards  of  warm  valleys,  sheltered 
from  the  north,  before  passing  on  between  the  massive 
limestone  blocks  and  dolomitic  ridges  of  the  southern 
outer  zone.  So  sharp  a  division  between  limestone  rock 
and  central  zone  as  this  which  appears  in  the  Eastern 
Alps  does  not  occur  again  except  in  the  French  Alps, 
where  the  valleys  of  the  Drac  and  of  the  middle  Isere 
(Graisivaudan)  present  similar  features  in  the  partition  of 
the  mountains.  In  Savoy  and  Switzerland,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  northern  Limestone  Alps  are  welded  with  the 
central  zone.  Not  only  do  we  find  whole  mountains  of 
limestone  set — like  the  Alps  of  Fribourg — upon  a  basis  of 
central  rock,  but  we  also  find,  in  the  mountain  sides  west 
of  the  Aar,  wedges  of  Jurassic  limestone  pushing  their  way 
like  fingers  amid  the  gneiss  of  the  massif.  At  this  point 
the  geographical  divisions  of  the  mountains  cannot  claim  to 
be  supported  by  the  boundaries  of  geological  distribution. 


i8  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

The  contrast  between  the  central  zone  and  the  lime- 
stone mountains  is  not,  however,  the  only  feature  of  the 
longitudinal  division  of  the  Alps.  A  traveller  who  enters 
them  from  the  Falls  of  the  Rhine  or  from  the  Danube 
does  not  come  immediately  upon  the  limestone  rocks. 
He  finds  their  bare  walls  standing  in  a  foreground  of 
lower  mountains  {pre-Alps),  rich  in  woods  and  pastures, 
built  up  from  the  detritus  brought  down  from  the  Alps. 
Among  them  are  schistose  rocks,  sandstones,  and  con- 
glomerates, which  the  Swiss  significantly  call  "  nagel- 
fluh "  (nailrock),  because  innumerable  rounded  pebbles 
lie  embedded  in  the  cement  of  the  rock  like  finger-nails 
in  the  fiesh  of  fingers.  The  strata  of  this  detritus,  in- 
volved in  the  later  upheaval  of  the  mountains,  have 
become  steeply  raised,  and  nothing  can  help  us  more 
clearly  to  realise  the  immense  denudation  which  the  Alps 
have  undergone  in  the  course  of  their  existence  than  the 
exposed  deposits  of  such  mountains  as  the  Rigi,  the  Speer, 
the  Pfander,  and  the  Wienerwald,  built  up  of  mere  Alpine 
debris. 

The  destructive  operations  of  water  and  ice  continued 
of  course  even  when  the  mighty  disturbances  of  the 
earth's  crust,  by  which  the  proud  ranges  of  the  Alps 
were  created,  had  ceased.  To  them  are  due  the  valley 
formations  of  the  mountains  and  the  heaping  up  of  the 
Alpine  foreland.  This  last  again  is  a  geological  formation 
of  no  simple  kind.  It  includes  deposits  cast  into  the 
depths  of  a  sea  which  once  surrounded  the  Alps  ;  others, 
of  later  date,  formed  in  lakes  ;  others,  again — latest  of  all, 
and  of  all  of  most  importance  to  the  landscape — which  have 
been  brought  down  by  Alpine  glaciers  of  the  Glacial 
Epoch,  or  spread  by  streams  of  melting  water  over  a 
region  which  the  glaciers  either  had  not  reached  or  had 
deserted. 

If  we  divide  the  whole  Alpine  region  thus — outermost 
zone  or  "Foreland"  (/),  Pre-Alps  (/>),  Limestone  Alps  (/), 
Gneissic  Alps(^) — we  might  expect,  in  crossing  the  moun- 
tains from  side  to  side,  to  pass  over  seven  successive  belts 
(/»  A  A  g}  U  A  /)•     ^^'^  even  in  the  Eastern  Alps  there  is 


r 


^ 


iaiffiL-i- 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  19 

scarcely  a  single  section  in  which  we  should  find  all  these 
belts  developing  themselves  in  this  succession.  In  the 
Western  Alps  the  southern  outer  zones  are  entirely  absent, 
and  the  inner  curving  edge  exhibits  ancient  schistose  and 
gneissic  rocks  breaking  off  suddenly  towards  the  Pied- 
montese  area  of  depression.  This  conspicuous  fact  alone 
would  form  a  sufficient  ground  for  dividing  the  whole 
Alpine  range  into  two  wings,  the  dividing  line  of  which 
follows  the  Rhine  Valley  from  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
rises  with  the  Hinter  Rhine  to  the  Spliigen  Pass,  and 
goes  round  the  Lake  of  Como  on  its  way  to  reach  the 
Lake  of  Lugano  and  the  Lago  Maggiore. 

The  Western  Alps  are  gathered  together  into  narrower 
compass  ;  their  principal  ridges  press  so  closely  upon  the 
plains  of  Italy  that  the  contrast  between  a  steep  inner  and 
a  more  broadly  developed  outer  slope  becomes  particularly 
striking ;  they  include  higher  mountains,  larger  snow- 
fields,  glaciers  more  richly  fed,  and  contrasts  of  altitude  and 
climate  both  greater  and  more  closely  contiguous.  The 
Eastern  Alps  are  of  wider  extent  ;  the  river  network  of  the 
Hungarian  plain  penetrates  deeply  into  them,  and  divides 
their  northern  from  their  southern  slope  by  broad  longi- 
tudinal valleys,  such  as  those  of  the  Drave  and  Save  ;  the 
mountains  drop  to  more  moderate  heights  and  fade  away 
by  degrees,  but  the  advantage  of  lower  passes  is  lost  in 
the  continually  recurring  necessity  for  going  up  and 
down.  On  the  other  hand,  the  absence  of  great  heights 
does  not  destroy  the  sublimity  of  the  scenery.  The 
variety  of  conformation  is  increased  by  blocks  of  Triassic 
limestone,  whose  size  can  nowhere  be  matched  in  the 
Western  Alps,  and  by  the  predominance  over  wide  areas 
of  old  volcanic  deposits.  The  presence  also  of  a  series 
of  strata  lying  horizontally,  free  from  geological  folding, 
and  divided  only  by  breaks,  brings  into  the  landscape  an 
element  foreign  to  the  Western  Alps. 

But  all  these  diversities  between  Western  and  Eastern 
Alps  are  but  shades  of  variety  in  the  character  of  that 
Alpine  landscape  which  is  common  to  both,  and  in  virtue 
of  which  these  naturally  poor  mountains  exert  so  irresis- 


20  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

tible  a  charm  upon  all  the  cultivated  peoples  of  Europe. 
The  mere  greatness  of  the  unfolding  pageant,  the  gigantic 
mountains,  the  extended  prospect  from  their  laboriously 
attained  summits,  give  a  sense  of  freedom  to  spirits  habitu- 
ally confined  within  narrower  vistas.  Greater  pleasure, 
however,  will  be  secured  as  we  dig  deeper  into  the  exist- 
ence of  these  mighty  phenomena.  The  veils  spread  in 
lower  and  flatter  lands  by  coverings  of  earth  and  vegetation 
are  here  lifted  from  the  geological  formation  of  the  earth's 
surface.  In  rich  variety,  each  with  its  own  form  and 
colour,  the  rocks  stand  out  to  do  battle  with  the  powers 
of  the  air.  How  various  is  their  structure  !  Now  great 
masses  of  rock  lie  without  a  trace  of  stratification  ;  now 
the  strata  are  plainly  distinguishable,  resting  horizontally 
or  steeply  upheaved,  or  like  yielding  material,  pushed 
into  great  waves,  and  creased  elsewhere  into  tiny  folds. 
Even  the  unprepared  spectator  cannot  fail  to  receive 
some  notion  of  the  mighty  forces  which  have  shaped 
this  world  of  mountains.  One  part  of  these  forces 
indeed  he  still  beholds  working  actively,  not  only  in 
great  convulsions,  as  when  the  earth  quakes  along  the 
fracture  lines  of  the  Alpine  valleys,  or  along  that  of  the 
chain's  edge  at  Belluno,  Laibach,  or  Agram,  but  day 
by  day  in  the  silence  of  lonely  valleys  may  be  heard 
the  sliding  down  of  fragments  worn  away  from  the  rock 
by  the  action  of  the  weather,  the  rushing  of  brooks 
that  are  cutting  the  ravines  deeper,  and  the  thunder  of 
avalanches  that  come  sweeping  down  some  mountain  side. 
When  heavy  rains  fall  on  the  slopes  the  torrents  fill  and 
swell  into  overwhelming  strength.  Those  who  have 
never  seen  the  rubbish  heap  brought  down  by  an  Alpine 
torrent  have  no  conception  of  the  carrying  power  to 
which  running  water  may  attain,  especially  when,  loaded 
with  fragments  torn  from  its  bed,  it  flings  itself  onward  in 
a  stream  of  slush.  Nature,  then,  seems  to  be  trying  to 
create  something  half-way  between  a  river  and  a  glacier. 

The  glaciers,  those  imperceptibly  moving  rivers  of  ice 
that  travel  down  majestically  from  large  ice-fields,  passing 
between   forests  and  coming  into   the   neighbourhood  of 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  21 

human  habitations,  are  doing  their  part  in  the  geological 
work  still  proceeding  in  the  Alps.  The  spectacle  of  one 
of  these  great  glaciers  seems  to  threaten  that  the  ice  will 
push  its  way,  conquering  and  destroying,  into  the  domain 
of  life  and  cultivation.  When,  however,  we  consider  the 
Alps  from  a  wider  horizon  of  time,  we  become  aware  that 
exactly  the  reverse  has  taken  place.  The  extent  of  peren- 
nial snow-  and  ice-fields  actually  existing  in  the  Alps  is 
1400  square  miles,  and  the   area  of   the  glaciers  of  the 


z=.      /th.or\e  Clctcier- 
x^jjv-^   OtHer  ClacCerj 


Fig.  4.— The  Rhone  Glacier  in  the  Ice  Age.     (After  Falsan  et  Chantre.) 


Bernese  Oberland — the  largest  connected  expanse  of  the 
present  day  —  is  180  square  miles,  but  the  diluvian 
Alpine  glacier  system  occupied  more  than  65,000  square 
miles.  How  modest  appears  the  Aletsch  Glacier,  with  its 
fifteen  miles  of  length  and  its  superficies  of  forty-five 
square  miles,  in  comparison  with  the  Rhone  Glacier  of  the 
Glacial  Period  (9270  square  miles)  which  passed — 2600 
feet  thick — through  the  narrow  valley  of  St.  Maurice,  and 
spread  its  high  front  from  Lyons  to  Vienne.  This  picture 
from  the  Glacial  Period  gives  us  a  new  standard  by  which 


22  CENTRAL  EUROPE 

to  measure  the  present  ;  the  woodlands  clothing  the 
mountain  sides,  and  the  many-coloured  blossoms  of  the 
meadows,  pushing  their  way  to  the  very  edge  of  the 
snow-fields,  seem  a  triumphal  procession  of  life. 

The  snow-fields  themselves,  in  their  present  restricted 
dimensions,  are  not  only  a  boundary  of  life,  but  also  a 
storehouse  whence  life  draws  nourishment  and  strength. 
In  them  is  concentrated  that  value  which  high  moun- 
tain lands  possess  for  whole  countries  as  collectors 
of  atmospheric  moisture.  As  the  air  travels  up  the 
mountains,  expanding  and  growing  cooler  on  its  way, 
the  moisture  contained  in  it  becomes  partially  condensed, 
by  the  lower  temperature,  into  clouds  and  showers. 
While  the  annual  rainfall  of  North  Germany  is  about 
24  inches,  and  that  of  South  Germany  about  32, 
along  the  north  of  the  Alps  it  rises  to  from  40  to  48 
inches,  and  at  exposed  spots  in  their  interior  to  as  high 
as  80.  The  maximum  of  100  inches  and  over  occurs 
not  in  the  Western  Alps,  but  at  the  inner  angle  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  in  the  valley  of  the  Tagliamento  and  in 
the  mountains  of  Carniola.  A  remarkable  contrast  to 
the  abundance  of  rain  in  the  higher  mountains  is  afforded 
by  valleys  that  lie  sheltered  under  the  lee  of  high  ridges. 
Dry  sunny  stretches  of  this  kind — islands,  as  it  were, 
in  the  Alpine  ocean  of  rain — are  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Durance,  Valais,  the  Engadine,  and  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Inn.  Places  may  be  found  in  these  valleys  with 
an  annual  rainfall  of  26,  and  even  of  24  inches.  As 
the  summer  temperature  of  these  enclosed  longitudinal 
valleys  is  apt  to  be  particularly  high,  the  climatic  con- 
ditions are  usually  favourable,  and  the  limit  of  growth 
for  trees  and  all  cultivated  plants  is  higher  in  them  than 
elsewhere. 

Soil  as  well  as  climate  has  an  important  part  in  fixing 
the  limits  of  the  belts  of  plant  life  which  succeed  one 
another  below  the  snowline.  The  limestone  cliffs  on 
which  the  edelweiss  flourishes  are  less  favourable  to  other 
species  than  the  deep  mould  formed  by  the  decay  of 
schistose  rocks.     When  all  is  said,  however,  temperature 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  23 

remains  the  chief  factor  in  determining  the  distribution  of 
vegetation.  The  scale  of  temperature  is  lower  on  the 
northern  than  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Alps,  and 
the  contrast  between  the  two  slopes,  the  impression 
received  in  passing  from  the  highlands  of  Bavaria  to  the 
Lombard  border  of  the  Alps,  is  thus  intensified.  The 
northern  border  of  the  Alps,  from  the  Lake  of  Constance 
to  the  basin  of  Vienna,  lacks  the  vine.  From  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  only,  whose  reflected  warmth  swells  the  grapes  of 
Vaud    into    sweet    juiciness    and   lends   fiery   strength   to 


^Qj-ryfaJi 


/fsi/vy/      S^ar. 


/VeuchSte/ 


ffevffhts  o/'-lanxt  ejcoffgerated.  S  tirrvej 

Fig.  5. — Comparative  Heights  of  the  Land  and  Amount  of  Rainfall. 


their  wine,  does  the  culture  of  the  grape  push  its  way  far 
up  into  one  valley  of  the  northern  slope,  into  sunny 
Valais.  Along  the  Rhine  the  vineyards  end  at  Chur. 
At  the  eastern  base  of  the  mountains  the  vine  ventures 
only  to  moderate  heights — barely  1300  feet — in  the 
valleys  of  the  Mur,  the  Drave,  and  the  Save.  The 
whole  southern  border  of  the  Alps,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  one  delightful  vineyard,  the  outposts  of  which  extend 
up  the  valleys  to  an  altitude  of  2600  feet.  The  two  ends 
of  the  Alpine  curve,  indeed,  touch  the  region  of  genuine 


24  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Mediterranean  vegetation.  The  olive  fills  the  hollows 
below  Tenda,  from  Saorgio,  and  also  the  plain  of  Goritz 
on  the  farthest  Polar  limit  of  its  distribution.  Prom  the 
plain  of  the  Po  it  is  excluded  by  cold  winters  ;  but  a 
few  sheltered  nooks  of  the  Lombard  lakes  afford  a  home 
to  it,  and  to  more  delicate  plants  still,  belonging 
properly  to  an  evergreen  sub-tropical  flora.  An  extreme 
instance  of  the  favourable  climate  enjoyed  by  Alpine 
valleys  open  to  the  south  is  presented  by  Meran,  eighty 
miles  within  the  Alpine  border.  This  valley  surrounds 
the  castle  of  Tyrol  as  if  with  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides, 
and  delights  the  Northerner  whom  delicate  health  drives 
hither  in  winter,  by  offering  him  the  beauties  of  a  far 
more  southern  landscape.  A  glorious  adornment  of  the 
southern  valleys  of  the  Alps,  as  well  as  a  treasure  for 
their  inhabitants,  is  furnished  by  the  chestnut  groves,  whose 
leafy  domes  come  to  perfection  on  many  a  slope  above 
the  level  of  the  vine.  It  is  true  that  the  chestnut  attains 
a  fine  growth  in  the  milder  northern  valleys  as  well  as  by 
the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  but  to  see  it  in  its  full  glory,  as  lord 
of  the  landscape,  we  must  seek  it  on  the  Italian  slope  of 
the  Alps,  and  especially  in  the  valley  nooks  of  Piedmont. 

While  the  crop  principally  cultivated  among  the  vines, 
chestnuts,  mulberries,  almonds,  and  figs  of  the  southern 
Alpine  valleys  is  maize,  cornfields  run  up  from  the  north — 
in  high  valleys  to  a  considerable  altitude — between  green 
woods  and  pine  forests.  The  more  remote  and  in- 
accessible any  district,  the  higher  does  cultivation  need  to 
push  its  bold  aspirations  ;  therefore  the  level  of  cultivation, 
and  with  it  the  level  of  permanent  human  habitations,  is 
exceedingly  variable,  ranging  in  the  Eastern  Alps  from 
3600  to  5900  feet  above  the  sea.  In  regard  to  the 
possibilities  of  agriculture  in  high  mountains,  it  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  oats  and  barley  are  being  tried  on  the 
top  of  the  Brenner  (4470  feet  high),  where  potatoes, 
cabbages,  and  turnips  thrive  without  difficulty.  The 
highest  wheat-fields  lie  a  little  lower,  on  the  sunny 
southern  slope.  Rye  and  oats  will  ripen,  even  on  the 
summit  of  Mont  Genevre  (6100  feet  high). 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  25 

If,  in  the  matter  of  cereal  cultivation,  the  mountaineers 
often  achieve  the  apparently  impossible,  the  same  praise 
cannot  be  given  them  as  regards  their  forestry.  The 
uppermost  line  of  trees,  occupied  sometimes  by  the  pine 
{pinus  picea),  sometimes  by  the  arolla  {pinus  cembra), 
and  sometimes  by  the  larch,  has  in  most  places  been 
lowered,  either  by  reckless  using  up  of  the  timber  or  by 
its  actual  destruction  to  make  way  for  pasture-land.  The 
authorities  recognise  the  importance  of  forests,  both  in 
helping  to  maintain  the  soil  and  in  forming  a  protection 
against  the  ravages  of  torrents,  and  are  making  efforts  to 
preserve  the  existing  woods  and  to  replant,  at  immense 
trouble,  where  they  have  been  destroyed,  but  their  efforts 
are  only  succeeding  slowly.  The  most  shocking  instance 
of  destruction  is  to  be  seen  in  the  lacerated  slopes  of  the 
Basses  Alpes,  but  Ticino,  Southern  Tyrol,  and  the  Vene- 
tian Alps  have  also  in  many  places  been  sadly  maltreated. 
In  Northern  Switzerland  4430  feet  is  considered  to  be  the 
average  limit  of  the  beech  tree,  and  that  of  conifers  6900  ; 
but  among  the  Rhaetian  Alps,  the  larch  and  pmus  cembra 
sometimes  reach  considerably  higher — to  as  much  as  7900 
feet. 

In  other  parts  of  the  Alps  so  great  a  height  is  scarcely 
attained  by  the  dwarf  forms  of  Scotch  fir  and  juniper, 
which,  together  with  rhododendrons,  make  up  the  brush- 
wood of  the  Alpine  region.  In  summer  time  the  succulent 
herbage  affords  pasture  to  herds  of  cattle,  which  begin  to 
come  up  in  the  spring,  ascend  step  by  step,  and  only 
return  at  Michaelmas  to  their  stalls  in  the  villages.  A  few 
permanently  inhabited  dwellings,  mountain  hotels,  and 
hospices  of  the  main  Alpine  highways  are  exceptions  from 
the  usual  nomadic  conditions,  and  stand  on  the  heights 
near  to  the  snow-line,  while  far  higher  still  rise  the  ob- 
servatories of  meteorological  science.  No  other  mountains 
number  so  many  of  these  as  the  Alps.  The  highest  are 
on  Mont  Mounier  in  the  Alpes  Maritimes,  the  Great 
St.  Bernard,  the  Sentis,  the  Zugspitze  in  Bavaria,  the 
Sonnblick  in  the  Tauern,  and  the  Hoch  Obir  in  Carinthia. 
Even  on  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc  self-registering  in- 


26  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

struments  are  at  work.  Thus  high  does  modern  science 
push  its  outposts,  and  not  content  with  the  triumphs  wrung 
already,  and  being  wrung  every  year  from  investigation  of 
the  mountains  themselves,  is  now  lying  in  wait  that  it  may 
overhear  the  laws  of  the  winds. 

The  spectacle  of  the  Western  Alps  as  seen  from  the 
plain  of  Piedmont  is  very  imposing,  because  great  heights, 
such  as  the  black  pyramid  of  Monte  Viso,  the  broad, 
glacier-covered  summit  of  the  Gran  Paradiso,  and  the 
icy  wall  of  Monte  Rosa,  lie  quite  close  to  the  outer  edge  of 
the  mountains.  These  are  the  dominating  heights  in  the 
three  groups  of  the  Cottian,  the  Graian,  and  the  Pennine 
Alps,  which  together  form  the  inner  zone  of  primitive 
central  massifs.  An  outer  concentric  circle,  divided  from 
them  by  valleys  and  passes,  is  formed  on  their  south, 
west,  and  north  sides  by  the  following  groups  :  the 
Maritime  Alps,  dark  and  besprinkled  with  tiny  lakelets 
and  diminutive  glaciers  ;  the  masses  of  Gisans,  rising, 
rugged  and  forbidding,  from  deep  valleys,  between  whose 
summits  are  sliding  down  glaciers  of  the  first  magni- 
tude ;  the  Belle  Donne  heights  adorning  the  horizon  of 
Grenoble  ;  the  mass  of  Mont  Blanc  ;  and  the  Bernese 
Alps. 

The  line  of  longitudinal  valleys,  running  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Gap,  along  the  Drac  and  Isere,  by 
Grenoble  to  Albertville,  divides  the  domain  of  the  central 
masses  from  that  of  the  Limestone  Alps,  ranged  beyond. 

These  limestone  mountains  separate  at  Chambery  ;  only 
one  of  the  branches  joins  the  Alps.  A  western  branch  con- 
tinues in  due  northerly  direction,  and  dropping  gradually 
to  more  moderate  heights,  forms  the  Jura  chain,  whose 
half  circle,  steep  on  the  inner  side  from  Chambery  to 
Schaffhausen,  surrounds  the  outer  Alpine  zone  of  Savoy 
and  Switzerland. 

North  of  Chambery  the  Alpine  system  thus  becomes  not 
only  broader,  but  more  varied  in  its  kinds  of  soil  and  more 
important  to  social  and  political  life.  The  tableland  of 
Switzerland  interposes  its  independent  productive  domain 
between  the  rugged,  highest   mountains  and  the  gentler 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  27 

forms  of  the  Jura,  whose  blue  belt,  long  drawn  out  and  vary- 
ing but  little  in  elevation,  stretches  along  the  north-western 
horizon.  Behind  the  foremost  ridge  numerous  others  rise 
in  parallel  order,  divided  by  high  valleys  and  getting  lower 
and  lower,  flatter  and  flatter,  until  the  last  waves  of  the 
swelling  Jura  die  out  on  the  Jura  plateau  of  France.  The 
heights  are  moderate,  but  the  number  of  ridges  is  a  hin- 
drance to  traffic,  hardly  mitigated  by  the  occurrence  here 
and  there  of  "  cluses,"  narrow  gorges  which  cut  across  par- 
ticular mountains  and  allow  the  rivers  to  pass  from  one 
longitudinal  valley  to  another.  The  Doubs  is  the  most 
striking  example  of  a  Jura  stream  winding  to  and  fro  in 
this  network  of  valleys.  The  limestone  of  the  mountains, 
with  its  clefts  and  holes,  also  affords  subterranean  pas- 
sages to  the  rivers.  The  water  from  basins  without 
any  apparent  outlet  accumulates  in  caves,  and  afterwards 
comes  to  light  again  with  the  vigorous  flow  of  real  rivers. 
Thus  the  source  of  the  Orbe  proves  to  be  the  outflow  of 
the  Lac  du  Joux.  Many  shallow  lakes  have  been  con- 
verted into  peat  bogs,  and  now  form  melancholy  moor- 
lands enclosed  by  gloomy  woods.  The  severity  of  the 
snowy  winters,  the  poverty  of  the  soil,  and  the  contour 
of  the  thinly  populated  mountains,  combine  to  form  an 
effectual  barrier.  There  are  only  a  few  valleys  to  which 
modern  industry,  supplemented  by  water-power,  imparts 
a  more  active  life. 

In  order  to  realise  vividly  the  change  of  character 
undergone  by  the  mountains  along  the  line  of  their  direc- 
tion, we  shall  do  well  to  consider  how  differently  the 
Rhone  and  the  Rhine  find  egress.  The  way  of  the 
Rhone  is  barred  by  Mont  Credo.  The  ravine  cut  by 
the  stream  through  the  innermost  rampart  of  the  Jura 
is  too  narrow  to  carry  the  railway,  so  that  a  tunnel 
13,000  feet  long  has  had  to  be  bored  through  the  moun- 
tain. No  less  than  six  chains  of  the  Jura  have  to  be 
passed  on  the  way  to  the  plain,  and  the  branching  and 
winding  valley  whereby  the  Rhone  achieves  this  passage 
is  forty  miles  long.  But  the  Rhine  finds  no  chain  of  the 
Jura   at  all    before  it  ;  the  last  fold   of  these  mountains 


28  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

that  attains  any  considerable  height  ends  beyond  the 
Limmat,  not  far  from  the  hot  springs  of  Baden.  All 
that  the  Rhine  has  to  do  is  to  pass  through  the  table- 
land of  the  Jura,  in  which  task  it  succeeds  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Aar.  The  falls  of  the  Rhine,  however, 
are  not  here,  but  far  to  the  east,  where  the  river  begins 
to  accompany  the  southern  border  of  the  Jura.  The 
occurrence  of  the  famous  falls  is  a  sheer  accident.  The 
Rhine  at  one  time  filled  up  its  bed  with  gravels,  and, 
flowing  over  their  surface,  diverged  so  far  to  the  right  of 
its  original  course  as  to  approach  very  closely  to  the  edge 
of  the  Jura.  By-and-by,  when  it  again  began  to  deepen 
its  bed,  it  came  down  not  upon  its  old  hollowed  channel, 
but  upon  the  projecting  spurs  of  the  Jura,  which  its  fall 
is  now  in  process  of  eating  through.  The  Jura,  in  all 
circumstances,  and  throughout  its  whole  extent,  is  a  clear 
natural  boundary,  but  the  Federation  has  not  everywhere 
respected  it. 

The  core  of  Switzerland's  political  strength  is  to  be 
found  in  the  outer  circle  of  the  Helvetian  Alps,  enclosing 
and  uniting  the  sharply  divided  Alpine  valleys  that  lie 
between  the  Rhone  and  the  Rhine,  and  clearly  divided  in 
turn  by  the  great  lakes  of  those  two  rivers,  from  the 
kindred  territories  of  Savoy  and  Swabia.  When  the  sea 
which  once  filled  this  expanse  had  retired,  the  direction 
of  the  oldest  watercourses  was  given  by  the  north- 
westward slope.  The  broad  valleys  washed  out  by  these 
streams  converted  the  plateau  of  sandstone  and  con- 
glomerates into  a  mountain  tract,  whose  outline  early 
became  irregular.  The  connection  between  various  parts 
of  the  ancient  valley  system  has  been  reconstructed  by 
geologists  from  the  separated  elements.  One  old  course 
of  the  Rhine  is  indicated  by  the  succession  of  valleys 
from  Sargans  by  the  lakes  of  Wallenstadt  and  Zurich  to 
the  Limmat.  An  old  middle  course  of  the  Reuss  passes 
from  Brunnen,  where  the  delta  of  the  Muotta  interrupted 
it,  past  Schwyz  to  the  lakes  of  Lowerz  and  Zug.  Towards 
the  same  basin,  too,  goes  the  valley  whose  upper  part  is 
crossed  by  the  Briinig  railway,  and  whose  lower  part  is 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  29 

filled  by  the  transverse  arms  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne. 
The  lakes  of  Baldegg  and  Halhvyl,  too,  as  well  as  that  of 
Sempach,  lie  in  the  bed  of  similar  valleys.  The  closing 
of  these  valleys  and  the  transformation  of  some  of  their 
parts  into  lakes  are  due  in  part  to  subsequent  structural 
disturbances,  in  part  to  later  deposits  and  more  especially 
to  the  influences  of  the  Glacial   Periods.     There  was   a 


...                                     , 

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Lucerne •« 

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V 

\^B^  ■                   **»■  C_                 .^ 

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Fig.  6. — Ancient  Valleys  of  the  Four  Forest  Cantons.     (After  Albert  Heim.) 

time  when  the  Alpine  valley  glaciers  covered  the  whole 
land  up  to  the  Jura  without  a  break:  when  they  after- 
wards divided  and  began  to  retreat,  they  left  behind,  not 
merely  occasional  erratic  blocks,  but  whole  ridges  of 
immense  moraines  and  broad  strata  of  rubble.  It  is 
amazing  to  see  how  freshly  preserved — like  the  skin  from 
which  a  snake  has  just  slipped  out — are  the  amphitheatres 
of  moraine  left  by  the  Rhone  glacier  at  Wangen  on  the 


30  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Aar,  and  by  the  Reuss  glacier  at  Mellingen.  The  terraces, 
by  which  many  of  the  more  deeply  cut  modern  rivers 
are  bordered,  are  also  made  of  boulders  and  pebbles 
brought  down  by  old  glacier  streams.  Sometimes  there 
will  be  several  such  terraces,  one  above  another :  at 
Schaffhausen  there  are  as  many  as  five.  These  are  due 
either  to  several  glacial  periods,  or  to  the  repeated  advance, 
during  the  same  period,  of  a  glacier,  always  travelling 
down  a  furrow  of  erosion  cut  through  still  older  glacial 
formations. 

The  whole  landscape  of  the  Swiss  highlands  thus 
bears  upon  its  face  the  marks  of  the  Glacial  Period. 
To  that  period  the  country  owes  its  greatest  beauty — 
the  abundance  of  lakes.  No  doubt  it  is  true  that  basins 
as  large  as  that  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  (223  square 
miles  in  extent  and  10 14  feet  in  depth)  and  that  of 
the  Lake  of  Constance  (208  miles  in  extent  and 
827  feet  in  depth),  or  as  complex  in  form  as  that  of 
the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  must  have  been  formed  by  some 
structural  causes.  Swiss  geologists  hold  the  opinion — 
which  has  been  thought  to  be  clearly  established  by 
the  case  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich — that,  at  some  time 
previous  to  the  Glacial  Period,  a  sinking  of  the  Alps, 
and  consequently  a  relative  rising  of  the  outer  circle, 
occurred,  which  reversed  the  gradient  of  the  valley 
openings,  and,  by  damming  up  the  waters,  submerged 
part  of  the  valleys  and  formed  the  outer  lakes  of  the 
Alps.  Even  if  this  were  the  case,  the  continuance 
of  the  lakes  must  have  been  promoted  by  their  being 
filled  with  ice  from  the  glaciers  ;  in  some  instances,  too, 
a  wall  of  moraine,  forming  itself  around  the  ice  promontory 
of  a  basin,  must  have  given  to  the  regenerated  lake  a 
higher  level  and  a  greater  expanse.  Masses  of  boulders 
from  the  Aar  divided  the  lake  of  Biel  from  that  of 
Neuenburg,  while  the  lake  of  the  Aar  district  was  cut 
in  two  by  the  delta  of  Interlaken. 

Viewed  from  the  outer  summits  of  the  Alps,  these 
nurrierous  lakes  afford  a  delightful  prospect  ;  that  from 
the    Rigi,    in    particular,    is    incomparable.       The     lakes,, 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  31 

moreover,  are  active  foci  of  life.  They  were  so  even  for 
the  poor  pile-dwellers  who  concealed  their  huts  amid 
the  arms  of  the  waters.  They  are  so,  no  less,  for  the 
world  of  modern  culture.  The  Lake  of  Lucerne,  shutting 
off  the  upper  valley  of  the  Reuss,  was  the  cradle  of  Swiss 
freedom.  The  light  of  the  lakes  shines  upon  the  finest 
vineyards  and  orchards  of  Switzerland  ;  in  their  mirror 
are  reflected  the  leading  towns,  socially  and  intellectually, 
of  this  happy  country,  whose  natural  gifts  have  developed 
under  the  blessing  of  a  long  peace.  The  land  is  full  of 
verdure  and  freshness,  of  busy  streams,  rich  meadows, 
trim  little  towns,  cheerful  villages,  and  scattered  country- 
houses,  gazing  proudly  into  the  ramparts  of  the  Alps. 
Every  glance  cast  up  act  them  strengthens  the  assurance  : 
"  God  has  built  us  a  castle  of  freedom." 

In  the  inmost  heart  of  the  high  mountains,  three  great 
rivers,  flowing  through  the  three  largest  outer  lakes,  the 
Rhone,  the  Reuss,  and  the  Rhine,  almost  meet  at  their 
fountains.  The  transversal  valleys  of  all  three,  which  are 
filled  with  new  land,  formed  at  the  head  of  the  lakes 
by  the  rivers  themselves,  rise  gently  at  first,  then  close 
in,  and  become  gorges,  those  of  the  Rhine  being  gay 
and  pleasant,  those  of  the  Rhone  dark  and  gloomy,  and 
those  of  the  Reuss  wild  and  impressive.  All  these  trans- 
versal openings  end  in  that  chain  of  longitudinal  valleys, 
which  together  form  the  main  central  road  into  the 
fastnesses  of  the  Swiss  mountains.  The  bend  of  the 
Rhone  at  Martigny,  and  that  of  the  Rhine  at  Chur,  are 
130  miles  apart.  Seventy-five  of  these  miles  lie  in  Valais, 
up  to  the  Rhone  glacier  ;  forty  in  the  Bundenerthal  of  the 
Hither  Rhine  ;  and  fifteen  in  the  Urserenthal,  where  the 
Reuss  rises.  This  river  collects  its  springs  on  the  green 
plain  of  Andermatt  before  it  rushes,  foaming  in  wild 
waterfalls,  through  the  terrible  ravine  of  the  Schollenen, 
into  its  transversal  valley.  The  unity  of  the  great  inner 
line  of  valleys  is  of  importance  to  the  coherence  of  Switzer- 
land, and  facilitates  communication  between  the  cantons. 

North  of  the  Valais  the  peaks  of  the  Bernese  Oberland, 
carrying  the  richest  glacier  field  of  the  Alps,  rise  majes- 


32  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

tically  above  their  neighbours.  How  differently,  however, 
would  they  stand  out  if  the  thick  deposit  of  limestone 
distinguishable  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  outer  hill  tops 
around  had  remained  on  their  summits. 

If  we  stand  on  the  threshold  of  Valais,  between  the 
proud  entrance  columns  of  the  Dent  du  Midi  and  the  Dent 
de  Morcles,  an  inspection  of  their  foundations  will  readily 
convince  us  that  at  this  point  the  rocks  of  the  Mont  Blanc 
group  extend  across  the  Rhone,  and  dipping  under  the 
Alps  of  Fribourg,  form  a  bridge  of  connection  with  those 
of  the  Bernese  district.  In  length  and  breadth  as  well  as 
in  complexity  of  parts  the  Mont  Blanc  group  falls  below 
the  Bernese  Oberland,  but  the  spectacle  of  Europe's 
highest  peak  (15,781  feet  high)  and  the  glaciers  belonging 
to  it  is  so  striking  that  the  lover  of  the  Alps  cannot  be 
contented  with  a  mere  visit  to  the  valley  of  Chamouni, 
but  must  make  the  circuit  of  the  whole  group, — "  Le  tour 
du  Mont  Blanc."  This  circuit  is  much  easier  than  the 
corresponding  circuit  of  Monte  Rosa,  since  that  highest 
point  on  the  Pennine  Alps,  while  rising  from  valleys 
equally  deep,  is  situated  among  much  higher  ridges  :  the 
eastern  descent  towards  Macugnaga  is  perhaps  the  most 
beautiful  close  of  a  valley  to  be  found  in  Europe.  The 
steep  fall,  on  the  south,  into  the  Val  d'Aosta,  and  the 
connected  sheet  of  glaciers  on  the  north,  render  the 
Pennine  chain  and  the  Mont  Blanc  group  the  most 
inaccessible  portions  of  the  Alps.  Even  the  Great  St. 
Bernard,  upon  whose  crest  antiquities  have  been  found, 
proving  it  to  have  been  much  travelled  in  early  times,  is 
still  without  a  carriage-way.  One  of  the  largest  stretches 
without  a  carriage  road  in  the  whole  Alps,  lies  between 
the  Little  St.  Bernard  and  the  Simplon — a  distance  of 
eighty  miles.  The  Simplon  is  the  first  of  a  series  of 
passes — the  St.  Gotthard,  the  Lukmanier,  and  the  San 
Bernardino^ — which  lead  from  the  valley  of  the  Rhone, 
the  Reuss,  and  the  Vorder  and  Hinter  Rhines,  into  the 
four  most  important  divisions  of  the  Upper  Ticino  district. 
This  whole  sheaf  of  roads,  as  well  as  the  railway  which 
already  passes  under  the  St.  Gotthard  and  that  which  will 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  33 

shortly  pass  under  the  Simplon,  converges  upon  Milan. 
The  fact  that  so  many  roads  here  lie  so  near  together, 
bears  witness  to  the  comparative  lowness  of  these  moun- 
tains near  the  end  of  the  Western  Alps.  Only  the 
Adula  group,  at  the  source  of  the  Hinter  Rhine,  can  show 
any  considerable  glaciers.  Immediately  to  the  east  lie  the 
San  Bernardino  and  the  Spliigen,  important  links  between 
the  valley  of  the  Hinter  Rhine  and  the  two  great  Lom- 
bard Lakes.  Between  these  two  passes  we  may  hesitate, 
when  we  are  setting  the  boundary  between  the  Western 
and  the  Eastern  Alps. 

At  the  present  time  Chur  appears  the  natural  centre 
of  the  complex  system  of  Rhine  valleys,  but  this  was  n  t 
always  the  case  (Fig.  7).  Traces  can  still  be  distinguished 
of  an  earlier  condition  of  the  country's  surface,  by  which 
the  centre  was  thrown  more  to  the  north,  in  the  direction 
of  Ragatz.  In  the  Tertiary  Period,  when  the  planes  of  the 
valleys  were  some  1600  to  2000  feet  higher,  the  aban- 
doned high  valley  of  the  Heath  of  Lenz,  between  Chur 
and  Tiefenkasten,  formed  the  middle  section  in  the  main 
trunk  of  this  valley  system.  The  line  of  transversal  valleys 
between  Chur  and  the  Lake  of  Constance  was  thus 
continued  southward  to  the  source  of  the  Oberhalbstein 
Rhine  at  the  Septimer  Pass.  At  that  period  the  Hinter 
Rhine  did  not  end  at  Reichenau,  but  flowed  northward 
on  a  higher  valley  plane  to  the  Kunkels  Pass,  and,  fol- 
lowing a  valley  which  has  now  been  succeeded  by  that 
of  the  lesser  Tamina,  did  not  join  the  main  river  till 
Ragatz.  At  Pfeffers  its  stream  cut  a  deep  and  narrow 
gorge  in  the  wide  expanse  of  the  old  valley.  Thus  the 
erosion  of  two  streams  working  backward  from  Chur  and 
Thusis  cut  out  the  two  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Rhine 
and  of  the  Albula  at  Schyn  Pass,  and  tapped  the  old 
transverse  valleys  at  Reichenau  and  Tiefenkasten.  The 
dry  beds  of  these  streams,  at  the  Heath  of  Lenz  and  at 
the  Kunkels  Pass,  are  broad  and  lie  high  ;  they  offer  a 
striking  contrast  with  the  later  narrow  gorge  into  whose 
shadows  the  admiring  traveller  gazes  down  from  the  Via 
Mala  or  the  Schyn  Pass.     Clear  examples  of  the  conflict 


34 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


for  the  drainage  are  also  furnished  by  other  streams  in 
this  district.  The  Landquart,  intervening  from  behind, 
robs  the  Davos  Landwater  of  its  sources  of  supply  at 
Klosters.  The  swift  Mera,  too,  forces  backwards  its 
invading  way  through  the  slowly  retreating  cliff  of  the 
Maloggia  Pass  towards  the  Engadine,  on  whose  flat 
surface   the    Inn   is   dammed   up  into   lakes   by   rubbish- 


FiG.  7. — Ancient  Valleys  of  the  Orisons,    (After  Albert  Heim.) 


heaps   from   side   streams.     The   farthest   springs   of   the 
Mera  were  at  one  time  sources  of  the  Inn. 

At  the  sources  of  the  Inn  we  come  to  the  basin  of 
the  Danube,  by  whose  extensive  longitudinal  valleys 
and  eastward  flowing  waters  the  greater  part  of  the 
Eastern  Alps  is  dominated.  The  Engadine,  fifty  miles 
long,  which  forms  the  Swiss  portion  of  the  Inn  valley, 
lies    on    the    surface    of     the    Rhaetian    Alps,    the    most 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  35 

massive  part  of  the  central  zone,  and  the  only  part  in 
which  the  valleys  occupy  levels  considerably  above  the 
sea.  The  valley  plane  of  Pontresina,  the  spot  in  the 
Upper  Engadine  most  frequented  by  tourists,  lies  as  high 
as  the  top  of  the  Rigi.  An  easy  walk  brings  the  traveller 
to  the  Languard,  a  peak  better  situated  than  any  other  to 
afford  a  view  of  the  Rhaetian  Alps  in  their  entirety. 
Immediately  opposite  towers  the  icy  Bernina  group 
(13,297  feet  high);  on  the  north,  across  the  Inn,  lies 
the  North  Rhaetian  ridge,  deeply  indented  by  passes ;  on 
the  south-east,  the  snow  peaks  of  the  Ortler  (12,802  feet 
high)  and  of  the  Adamello,  jutting  far  out  towards  the 
plain  of  the  Po,  shine  from  the  other  side  of  the  Valteline. 
Thus  we  recognise  unmistakably  the  way  in  which  the 
Rhaetian  Alps  are  divided  into  three  by  the  valleys  of  the 
Inn  and  of  the  Upper  Adda,  whence  the  highest  carriage- 
road  of  the  Alps  passes  over  the  Stelvio  into  the  Adige 
district. 

The  tendency  of  the  central  zone  to  divide  into 
massive  mountain  blocks  united  by  a  high  foundation  is 
conspicuous  in  this  district,  and  is  strikingly  repeated  on 
the  other  side  of  the  eastern  Swiss  frontier  by  the  broad, 
high-lying  valley  of  the  Reschen  Scheideck.  On  its  fiat 
surface  it  collects  the  sources  of  the  Adige,  and  sends  out 
a  brook  on  the  other  side  to  join  the  Inn  at  the  gorge 
of  Finstermunz.  The  drop  of  this  broad  saddle  (4901  feet 
high),  and  the  still  deeper  cut  of  the  Brenner  Pass  (4495 
feet  high),  isolate  the  group  of  the  Oetzthal  Alps  to  quite 
an  exceptional  degree.  Valleys  running  northward  open 
up  their  interior  as  far  as  the  main  ridge,  clothed  with 
glaciers,  which  drops  sharply  to  the  south. 

The  importance  of  the  Brenner  is  increased  by  its 
being  the  last  carriage-way  over  the  Alps  for  more  than  a 
hundred  miles.  The  chain  of  the  Hohen  Tauern  stretches 
through  that  distance,  and  joins  together  the  last  great 
glacier  fields  of  the  Alps  in  the  groups  of  the  Zillerthal, 
the  Venediger,  and  the  Gross-GIockner.  The  sharp  ridge 
of  the  Gross-Glockner  (12,461  feet  high)  looks  down  upon 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  glaciers  of  the  continent.  The 
4 


36  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

last  snow-peaks  surround  the  angle  of  the  Mur,  and  are 
succeeded  by  the  bifurcation  of  the  central  zone  into 
chains  of  rapidly  diminishing  height. 

The  mountain  masses  of  the  central  zone  include 
almost  all  the  glaciers  of  the  Eastern  Alps, — a  total  ex- 
panse of  not  less  than  674  square  miles  ;  their  peaks 
throughout  overtop  those  in  the  outer  zones  by  1300  to 
2600  feet.  And  yet  it  is  these  outer  zones  that  must  be 
visited  if  we  would  find  landscapes  that  the  western  Alps 
cannot  equal.  The  abundant  lakes  of  the  western  Alps 
are  all  upon  the  north-western  border.  The  openings  of 
Alpine  valleys  in  Piedmont  exhibit  no  great  sheets  of  water, 
but  only  small  pools  lying  in  the  moraine  amphitheatres  of 
the  two  Doras.  How  greatly  is  this  landscape  surpassed 
by  that  of  the  Lombard  lake  districts  between  Ticino  and 
Mincio  1  The  deep  basins,  whose  beds  lie  far  lower  than 
the  level  of  the  sea,  have  often  been  compared  with  the 
fiords  of  the  north.  Like  those,  they  were  once  full  of 
ice.  Their  southern  ends  are  surrounded  by  moraines 
which  form  wide  stretches  of  hill  country.  Ice  it  was 
which  brought  down  from  the  Tyrolese  mountains  those 
blocks  of  which  the  heights  south  of  the  Lake  of  Garda 
are  built  ;  those  heights  on  which  the  battle  of  Sol- 
ferino  decided  the  fate  of  Lombardy.  But  how  wide  is 
the  difference  between  the  gloomy  landscape  of  Norwegian 
mountain  shores  and  the  lake  strands  of  Lombardy,  whose 
rocky  nooks  are  filled  with  the  silver  grey  of  the  olive, 
and  even  with  the  shining  foliage  and  golden  fruits  of 
oranges,  citrons,  and  lemons. 

The  mountains  among  which  these  Italian  lakes  lie  be- 
neath the  smile  of  heaven  are  the  beginning  of  the  southern 
limestone  Alps.  Even  here,  however,  a  certain  inter- 
mixture of  volcanic  rocks  is  to  be  found.  Across  this 
varied  geological  map  the  Lake  of  Lugano  stretches  its 
arms  indifferently,  running  with  equal  disregard  through 
hard  rocks  and  soft.  Here  the  mountains  are  broken  up 
by  a  complex  system  of  valleys,  but  between  the  plain 
and  the  vine-growing  valley  of  the  Valteline  they  re-unite 
and    form    the    mighty   chain    of    the  Alps   of  Bergamc 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  37 

As  it  runs  round  the  southern  base  of  the  Adamello  group, 
the  ridge  of  limestone  mountains  grows  narrower ;  but  it 
spreads  into  breadth  and  into  fine  outHnes  at  the  wide 
bay  of  the  Adige  inside  the  obtuse  angle  that  would  be 
formed  by  lines  drawn  from  Brescia  to  Meran  and  thence 
to  Toblach.  At  their  northern  end,  however,  near  Bozen, 
the  limestone  and  dolomite  mountains  rest  upon  the  high 
platform  of  a  porphyry  bed  which  is  1700  to  2300  feet 
thick,  and  has  an  area  of  more  than  600  square  miles. 
Upon  the  undulating  surface  of  this  abundantly  wooded 
plateau,  deeply  cut  by  the  narrow  gorges  of  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  Adige,  may  be  found  the  most  varied  forma- 
tions lying  quite  close  together  ;  softly  shaped  lumps  of 
volcanic  tufa,  overgrown  with  a  carpet  of  swelling  turf, 
lie  side  by  side  with  abrupt  dolomite  cliffs,  the  work 
of  coral  animals  in  the  Triassic  sea.  A  belt  of  limestone 
and  dolomite  rocks  of  similar  origin  runs,  like  the  ring 
of  steep  coral  rocks  round  Australian  islands,  along  the 
south  as  well  as  the  north  of  the  Tauern.  Along  the 
horizon  of  Bozen  the  multiform  variety  of  these  dolomite 
rocks  may  be  seen  in  the  mighty  flat-topped  stump  of  the 
Schlern  and  the  teeth  and  needles  of  the  Rosengarten. 
These  reefs  have  generally  no  trace  of  stratification  ;  and 
where  stratified  rocks  rest  upon  them  they  lie  unbroken 
and  horizontal.  This  circumstance  deepens  the  surprising 
impression  produced  by  these  mountain  blocks,  which 
are  devoid  of  folds  and  broken  only  by  lines  of  fracture 
and  displacement.  The  silver  diadem  of  a  glacier  marks 
the  Vedretta  Marmolata  (11,024  feet  high)  as  the  queen  of 
the  district. 

The  whole  varied  mountain  world  of  South  Tyrol, 
with  its  convergent  valleys,  is  seamed  through  the  centre 
by  the  broad  way  of  the  Adige,  closed  above  Verona  by 
gorges.  "  Strada  d'AUemagna "  led  from  Venice  along 
the  Piave,  and  this  road,  which  travelled  between  rocks 
rising  high  towards  heaven,  found  an  easy  way  out  by 
the  valley  of  Ampezzo.  It  emerges  on  the  field  of  Tob- 
lach (3967  feet  high),  lying  in  the  midst  of  the  Puster- 
thal,  on   the   Pontic  and  Adriatic  watershed,  whence  the 


38  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Rienz  flows  westward  to  the  Eisack  and  the  Adige,  while 
the  Drave  flows  eastward.  Both  these  rivers  water  the 
great  longitudinal  valley  that  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  central  zone  and  the  southern  limestone  Alps,  serv- 
ing as  a  connecting  road  along  the  south  between  the 
Austrian  Alpine  districts. 

The  course  of  the  Drave  valley  opens  to  the  Klagenfurt 
basin,  which  is  the  heart  of  Carinthia.  In  summer  the 
clear  waters  of  the  Lake  of  Worth,  untouched  by  the 
turbid  glacier  streams  of  the  neighbouring  Drave,  attract 
visitors  from  many  parts  to  bathe  in  them  or  to  sail  upon 
them.  In  the  winter,  however,  a  crust  of  ice  covers 
the  face  of  the  waters  ;  for  in  that  season  a  lake  of  cold 
air,  colder  than  that  of  the  mountain  slopes  above,  fills 
the  valley  basin  of  Klagenfurt,  and  turns  it  into  a  little 
Siberia  amid  the  Eastern  Alps. 

The  Carinthian  basin  is  accessible  for  traffic,  for  it  is 
crossed  by  the  railway  from  Vienna  to  Venice,  whose 
rails  obtain  easy  access  to  the  valley  of  the  Tagliamento 
by  the  Pass  of  Pontebba.  The  limestone  mountains 
overshadowing  this  pass  are  dominated  by  the  Triglav, 
the  proud  south-eastern  final  pillar  of  the  Alps.  The 
rough  tablelands  extending  from  its  foot  already  distinctly 
exhibit  the  characteristics  of  the  Karst,  in  their  moderate 
height,  their  caverns,  and  their  hidden  water-courses. 
Thus  the  closed  basin  of  Laibach,  in  the  centre  of 
Carniola — not  less  than  the  bays  of  Karlstadt  and  Graz 
opening  widely  towards  the  Hungarian  plain — lies  on  the 
very  limit  of  the  Alps. 

The  easternmost  of  the  Alpine  railways,  the  line  Trieste 
to  Vienna,  touches  Laibach  and  Graz  without  encounter- 
ing any  serious  difficulty  before  the  Semmering  Pass  on  the 
height  leading  over  to  the  plain  of  Lower  Austria.  This 
pass  is  important  also  because  it  marks  the  eastern  end  of 
that  great  chain  of  valleys  which  forms  to  the  geologist's 
eye  the  approximate,  but  to  the  geographer's  the  perfectly 
clear  and  connected  boundary  between  the  Central  Alps 
and  the  northern  secondary  zone  of  the  Eastern  Alps. 

The    Inn,   Salzach,  and   Enns    rivers,    which    are    the 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  39 

principal  elements  in  this  long  succession  of  valleys, 
have  each  an  upper  reach,  running  longitudinally  with 
the  chain,  and  a  lower  reach  carrying  them  crosswise 
through  the  Limestone  Alps  to  the  plain.  The  trans- 
verse valleys  (Figs.  8,  9),  which  are  older  than  the 
longitudinal  reaches,  divide  the  Northern  Alps  into 
sharply  isolated  groups,  which  to  the  west  form  sharp 
ridges  and  slender  pointed  peaks,  as  do  the  Wetterstein 


Fig.  8. — Ancient  Transverse  Valleys  of  the  Northern  Alps. 


Mountains,  which  include  the  Zugspitze,  the  highest 
peak  in  the  German  Empire.  It  is  only  in  Salz- 
burg and  Upper  Austria  that  mountain  blocks  prevail 
with  a  broader  ground  plan  and  with  flatter  tops  ;  their 
surface,  however,  is  rendered  almost  impassable  by  the 
unevenness  of  the  "  Karren " — irregularly  shaped  holes 
and  channels  which  owe  their  existence  to  the  unequal 
decomposition  of  the  limestone  by  the  action  of  stand- 


40 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


ing  or  running  water.  The  ground  looks  as  if  sulphuric 
acid  had  rained  upon  it.  Not  without  reason  does  one 
of  these  blocks  bear  the  name  of  the  Dead  Mountain. 
Amid  their  wild  limestone  formations  the  Northern  Alps 
have  no  lack  of  rich  meadow  lands.  There  are  extensive 
woods,  too,  both  in  the  mountains  and  more  particularly 
on  the  belt  of  sandstone  and  schist  which  forms  their 
external  border.  This  belt  is  particularly  broad  in 
Austria,    but    is    seldom    so    completely    wanting    as    to 

permit  the  proud  limestone 
mountains  to  come  close 
down  to  the  foreland. 

A  great  charm  is  im- 
parted to  the  scenery  by 
the  lakes,  which,  like  the 
Konigsee  and  the  lake  of 
Hallstatt,  below  the  Watz- 
mann  and  the  Dachstein, 
may  be  formed  by  closed 
basins  penetrating  between 
steep  mountains";  or,  like 
the  Plansee  and  Achensee, 
fill  up  a  stretch  of  valley 
closed  in  by  heaps  of 
debris;  or,  after  the  fashion 
of  the  Walchensee,  look  up 
out  of  a  deeply  eroded  basin  between  wooded  heights, 
like  a  dark  eye  beneath  bushy  eyebrows.  The  larger 
number  are  gathered  together  in  the  Traun  district  of 
Upper  Austria.  It  is  here,  in  the  Salzkammergut,  that  the 
Schafberg,  the  Austrian  Rigi,  stands  surrounded  by  lakes, 
some  of  which — like  the  outer  lakes  of  Switzerland — fill 
the  outlets  of  the  valleys  and  belong  half  to  the  moun- 
tains and  half  to  the  foreland. 


1 

/Vsalzburg 

Reichenhallis 

l\ 

c 

VA-wu^nS 

% 

^MxoA^f  ^                      ^^ 

j\       % 

j-a^ —        /'IruiffCUl       {       ^^ 

^13^ 

Gasteiry        T 

Mi/n 

L^  Anko^d 

0                      <0                    » 

1 

Fig.  9. — The  Conquest  of  the  Pinzgau 
by  the  Salzach. 


The  glacial  epoch  which  down  to  these  basins  filled 
the  valleys  with  mighty  ice-streams,  left  also  far  outside 
on  the  Bavarian  foreland  some  beds  of  lakes  hollowed 
by  the  erosive  power  of  great  glaciers.     The  lake  of  Starn- 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  41 

berg  was  originally  the  middle  one  of  three  sister  lakes. 
The  Isar  began  by  eating  through  the  bank    -pj^^  Alpine 
of  the    eastern    lake — the  basin    of   Wolf-    Foreland  and 
ratshausen — then    emptied    it    by    flowing    the  German 
through    it.     The   western  lake,    however,    I^anube, 
the  Ammersee,  still  remains  and  marks  the   last  point  of 
advance  of  a  diluvial  glacier. 

The  largest  glacier  received  by  the  Alpine  foreland 
came,  of  course,  from  the  Rhine  valley.  The  most 
advanced  moraines  reach  to  the  Upper  Danube.  The 
source  of  the  Danube  lay,  at  that  time,  within  the  icy 
portals  of  the  Rhine  glacier.  It  was  only  the  moraines 
left  behind  after  its  withdrawal  which  formed  the  water- 
shed between  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 

While  the  moraines  of  the  Rhine  glacier  come  into 
immediate  contact  with  the  Swabian  Jura,  and  while  the 
deposits  of  the  glaciers  themselves  and  of  those  of  their 
melting  waters  are  mingled  upon  the  same  ground,  the 
high  plain  of  Bavaria  along  the  Isar  is  divided  more  clearly 
into  zones,  and  offers  three  distinct  types  of  landscape. 
The  most  southerly,  extending  from  the  foot  of  the  Alps 
to  beyond  the  lakes,  is  the  hill  country  of  the  moraines, 
wdth  little  pools  and  dried  basins  of  peat.  Next,  on  the 
north,  and  sloping  slightly  northward,  comes  the  tract  of 
gravels  which,  brought  down  by  the  melting  glacier  waters, 
and  finding  no  distinct  limit,  were  spread  out  widely  and 
scattered  over  the  plain.  This  beci  of  gravels  is  extremely 
pervious  to  the  water,  which  percolating  through  the 
whole  stratum,  runs  away  in  a  hidden  sheet  underground. 
The  surface  is  poor  in  water  and  unfruitful,  but  mostly 
covered  with  woods.  Only  in  valleys  that  penetrate 
low^er,  and  on  the  northern  border  of  the  bed  where  it 
grow'S  thin  before  disappearing,  does  the  water  come  near 
to  the  surface,  which  it  turns  into  a  swamp.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  the  great  bogs  of  Dachau  and  Erding,  which 
must  not  be  mistaken  for  silted-up  lakes,  have  been 
formed.  In  the  midst  of  this  poor  and  thinly-peopled 
rubble  field,  between  its  wooded  south  and  its  marshy 
north,   stands    Munich.     Still   farther   to    the    north    the 


42 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


substratum  of  old  hill  land  merges,  and  forms  a  third 
zone  reaching  to  the  Danube,  strongly  moulded  by  waters, 
and  presenting  a  fertile,  well-cultivated  landscape.  On 
the  meridian  of  Ratisbon,  where  the  Alpine  foreland 
reaches  its  maximum  breadth  of  ninety  miles,  this  division 
is  most  clearly  distinguishable.  It  prevails  also  in  the  Aus- 
trian foreland.     There,  however,  the  hill  country  obtains 


Z//"//  o/ Mors/nic  Scenery  (younger  Aior,3/nes  i^e// preserveO), 
''        Lim/'f  o/the  £/c/er  Moraines  f^s/f  c/esfroyea). 
(V.     The  efro/'neaf  LsAe  of  iVoyr3/s/t9usen. 
/•     IVa/chen  See.  3.   Bog    of  Dachaci. 

2.    Moche/  See.  4.    Boy    of  £rcf/ny 


Fig.  io. — Lakes  and  Moraines  of  the  German  Foreland  of  the  Alps. 


a  greater  width  in  the  Hausruck.  The  moraine  land,  on 
the  contrary,  shrinks  more  and  more.  Even  at  the  Enns 
it  draws  back  into  the  interior  of  the  A>.pine  valley.  At 
Melk,  where  the  Danube  enters  the  granites  of  the  Bohe- 
mian group,  its  southern  bank  is  divided  from  the  edge  of 
the  Alps  by  a  strip  of  gravels  only  twelve  kilometres  wide. 
The  division  of  the  Alpine  foreland  into  provinces 
has  naturally  been  founded,  not  upon  the  longitudinal 
zones  of  geological   formation,  but   upon   the   transverse 


THE  ALPS  AND  THE  GERMAN  DANUBE  43 

course  of  the  rivers  which  run  across  the  high  plain  to 
the  Danube.  The  tumuhuous  course,  indeed,  even  of 
those  few  which  are  navigable  beyond  the  edge  of  the 
Alps,  prevents  navigation  among  the  mountains  ;  most  of 
them  are  useful  for  no  other  traffic  fhan  the  floating  down 
of  wood,  but  it  is  precisely  their  value  as  obstacles  to 
communication  that  renders  them  acceptable  as  boun- 
daries. Thus  the  Lech  served  to  divide  Swabia  and 
Bavaria  ;  the  Inn  and  the  Salzach  are  at  the  present  day 
boundaries  of  the  Empires,  while  the  Enns  separates  Upper 
from  Lower  Austria.  The  history  of  the  many  peoples 
and  armies  who  have  streamed  from  east  to  west  through 
the  Alpine  foreland  makes  of  these  rivers,  as  it  were,  rungs 
of  a  ladder  which  the  invader  must  firmly  grasp  before 
he  can  rest  upon  them  ;  and  undoubtedly  the  position 
between  the  high  mountains,  the  Lech  and  the  Danube, 
has  contributed  to  form  a  definite  kernel  round  which 
the  largest  of  the  South  German  States  have  grown.  On 
this  horizon  Munich  was  the  clearly  marked  centre,  away 
from  the   Danube. 

The  stream  of  the  Danube  is  principally  fed  from  the 
Alps.  It  emerges  as  a  very  modest  river  from  the  lime- 
stone bed  of  the  Swabian  Jura,  whose  clefts  have 
diminished  its  supplies ;  the  large  contribution  of  the 
Iller  at  Ulm  makes  a  considerable  stream  of  it,  and  the 
Lech  and  Isar  so  strengthen  it  that  at  Passau  its  average 
flow  of  water  exceeds  that  of  the  mighty  Inn,  though  in 
summer-time  the  Inn  has  the  greater  quantity  of  water. 
Fully  four-fifths  of  the  wealth  of  water  belonging  to  the 
Danube  at  Vienna  comes  from  the  Alps. 

The  German  Danube  began  as  a  channel  of  outflow 
common  to  the  Alps  and  to  the  Inferior  Ranges  of  mid 
Germany  away  to  the  north.  It  has  probably  flowed 
from  the  beginning  on  the  boundary  of  the  two  districts. 
Now,  however,  it  makes  its  way  into  the  Jura  in  one  or 
two  places,  and  in  many  cuts  off  pieces  of  the  Bavarian 
and  the  Bohemian  Forest.  These  incursions  into  the 
northern  mountain  country  are  explained  by  the  fact  that 
the    limit  of  the   Alpine   foreland  formerly  lay   more  to 


44  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  north,  over  the  site  of  the  older  mountains,  and  was 
only  pushed  so  far  to  the  south  by  the  gradual  denuda- 
tion of  the  surface  ;  thus  many  reaches   of  the  Danube 

still  cling  to  their  original 

? .  ♦  course,    and    pursue   their 

■??5rtrr^-:o  ^=^a^^jfe^i^j^j^j^^^^-        work    of    erosion     within 

Fig.   II.— Entry  of  the  Danube  the  actual  limit  of  the  older 

into  the  Jura.  mountains.   There,  too,  the 

a.  Former  limit  of  the  Alpine  Foreland.  vo11p,r  chnwc  nliQncfpe  from 

6.  Limit  of  the  Alpine  Foreland  to-day.  VailCy  SHOWS  CUangCS  irom 

c.  Valley  of  the  Danube.  uarrow  guts  to  broad  and 

marshy  basins,  where  the 
flow  of  the  river  is  hindered  by  heaps  of  gravel  brought 
down  either  by  the  Danube  itself  from  its  swift  upper 
reaches  or  by  tributary  Alpine  streams.  Thus  arose  the 
Donau-Ried  at  Donauworth,  and  the  Donau-Moos  at 
Ingolstadt  ;  but  the  third  Bavarian  plain  of  the  Danube 
below  Ratisbon,  which  is  the  turning-point  of  its  course, 
has  received  only  fine  alluvial  deposits,  by  which  it  has 
been  enriched. 

At  Passau  the  junction  of  the  Danube  and  the  Inn 
now  occurs  not  in  the  open  country,  but  in  valley  furrows 
dug  out  of  the  granite  of  the  Bavarian  forest.  From  this 
point  to  Vienna  stretches  of  mountain  and  plain  alternate 
in  fairly  equal  proportions.  In  three  flat  basins,  the 
middle  one  of  which  begins  at  Linz  and  includes  the 
mouths  of  the  Traun  and  the  Enns,  the  waters  of  the 
Danube  divide  around  islets  overgrown  with  willows. 
The  main  stream,  however,  continues  to  press  so  much 
towards  the  right  bank  that,  on  the  map,  its  course  from 
one  narrow  and  rocky  spot  to  another  looks  like  a  chain 
hanging  between  two  posts.  The  mountain  banks,  from 
between  which  dangerous  rocKS  and  rapids  have  recently 
been  successfully  removed,  are  gay  with  fruit-growing 
villages,  convents,  country  -  houses,  and  ruined  castles 
famous  in  legend.  A  delightful  boating  excursion  may 
be  made  down  to  the  point  where  the  Danube  touches 
the  Wiener  Wald  and  breaks,  at  Kloster  Neuburg,  through 
the  first  chain  of  the  Alps.  The  Bisamberg,  on  the  left 
bank,   is   but   a   continuation    of    the    Kahlenberg.      The 


THE   ALPS   AND  THE   GERMAN    DANUBE    45 

narrow  opening  between  them  is  the  entrance  to  the 
basin  of  Vienna. 

This  is  an  area  of  depression  on  the  eastern  border  of 
the  Alps,  bounded  by  two  Hnes  of  fracture,  the  position 
of  which  is  marked  by  rows  of  hot  springs.  One  of  the 
lines  coincides  with  that  upon  which  the  Alps  break  off  to 
the  east  at  Baden,  the  other  with  the  north-western  edge 
of  the  RosaHen  ridge,  diverging  from  the  end  of  the 
Central  Alps,  and  with  that  of  the  Leitha  ridge.  These 
mountains  link  the  Alps  with  the  Carpathians,  divided 
quite  superficially  by  the  gap  of  Deveny  where  the  Danube 
crosses  the  threshold  of  Hungary. 

The  basin  of  Vienna,  in  the  midst  of  Central  Europe, 
has  always  been  a  place  of  importance,  both  as  to  the 
history  of  its  surface  and  as  to  the  fortunes  of  its  inhabitants. 
Even  in  the  Middle-Tertiary  Period,  when  the  Miocene 
ocean  still  w^ashed  the  outer  rim  of  the  Alps  and  Car- 
pathians, an  important  communication  existed  at  this 
point  between  that  ocean  and  the  waters  which  filled  up 
the  inner  ring  of  the  Carpathians  and  the  basin  of 
Roumania  down  to  the  Black  Sea.  As  these  wide 
expanses  of  country  gradually  dried,  the  Danube  suc- 
ceeded as  the  ocean's  heir  to  the  water-lordship  of  the 
lands  laid  bare.  Then  it  became,  within  historic  times, 
the  leader  of  peoples  coming  from  the  Hungarian  plains 
to  South  Germany,  or  in  the  contrary  direction.  By  all,  as 
soon  as  they  resolved  to  settle  permanently  along  the  middle 
Danube,  the  basin  of  Vienna  was  recognised  as  the  site  for 
a  centre  of  traffic  of  the  most  far-reaching  importance. 

Xote  on  Authorities. — L.  Ravenstein's  general  maps  of  all  the 
Alpine  districts,  drawn  from  excellent  original  surveys,  are  admirable. 
They  are  on  a  scale  of  1:250,000  and  include  9  sheets  of  the  Eastern 
Alps  and  2  sheets  of  the  Swiss  Alps. 

A  geological  map  of  the  Alps  (scale  1:1,000,000)  has  been  compiled 
by  Noe. 

An  English  translation  of  "The  Alps,"  by  F.  Umlauft,  appeared 
in  1889. 

The  process  of  the  folding  of  the  Alps  was  analysed  by  Edward  Suess 
in  his  Enstehung  der  Alpen,  1875  ;  and  by  Albert  Heim  in  his  Unter' 
suchungen  fiber  den  Mechanismus  der  Gebirgsbildung,  1878. 


46  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Special  details  as  to  the  formation  and  distribution  of  the  Alps  are 
furnished  by  C.  Diener's  Der  Gebirgsbaii  der  IVesialpen,  1891  ;  by 
the  same  author's  Der  Gebirgsbau  der  Ostalpen  (Petermann's  Mit- 
teilungcn,  1899,  and  Zeitschrift  des  D.  and  Oe.  Alpenvcreins,  xxxii. 
1901)  ;  and  by  A.  Bohm  {Geographische  Abhandiungen,  edited  by  Penck, 
i.  I,  1887). 

The  scenery  of  the  Alps,  considered  from  a  geological  standpoint, 
was  described  by  Eberhard  Fraas  in  1892  and  by  Sir  Jolm  Lubbock  in 
the  "  Scenery  of  Switzerland,"  1896;  also  by  Edward  Richter,  Geonior- 
phologische  Untersuchungett  in  den  Hochalpen^  1900. 

For  the  Alpine  Lakes,  F.  A.  Forel's  three  volumes  on  Le  Leman 
(1892-1902)  are  admittedly  models.  Lake  atlases  have  been  edited  for 
Germany  by  A.  Geistbeck  and  for  Austria  by  Penck  and  Edward 
Richter  (1895). 

In  regard  to  glaciers  at  the  present  day,  besides  the  general  works  of 
J.  Tyndall  and  A.  Heim,  Edward  Richter's  Die  Gletscher  der  Osialpen 
is  of  importance  ;  his  researches  as  to  the  snow  line  were  carried  on, 
in  regard  to  the  Swiss  Alps,  by  Jegerlehner  (Gerland's  Beitrdge  zur 
Geophysik^  v.,  1902). 

The  Alps  in  the  Glacial  Age  are  discussed  in  a  great  work  now  being 
issued  by  A.  Penck  and  Edward  Briickner. 

From  the  copious  literature  dealing  with  the  flora  may  be  distin- 
guished, H.  Christ's  Das  PJIanzenleben  der  Schweiz,  1879,  and  J.  Ball's 
"Origin  of  the  Flora  of  the  European  Alps"  {/Proceedings  of  the  Geo- 
graphical Society,  1 879). 

An  inexhaustible  mass  of  literature  deals  with  the  study  of  special 
portions  of  the  Alps.  In  1894  the  Sixth  International  Geological  Con- 
gress held  at  Ziirich  made  a  fine  selection  of  the  information  stored  in 
the  volumes — which  are  more  than  forty  in  number — of  the  Beiirdge  stir 
Gcologischen  Karte  des  Schweiz,  and  published  the  selection  under  the 
title  of:  Livret-Guide  geologique  dans  le  Jura  et  les  A /pes  de  la  Suisse. 
Monographs  of  general  geographical  interest  are  those  of  Baltzer  upon 
the  massif  of  the  Aar  and  the  ancient  Aar  glaciers  {Beitrdge,  xx., 
xxiv.,  and  xxx.) ;  of  A.  Heim  upon  the  high  Alps  between  the  Reuss 
and  the  Rhine  {Beitrdge,  xxv.) ;  of  E.  von  Mojsisovic's  Dolomitriffe 
von  Slid  Tirol  iind  Venetien,  1879;  and  of  F.  Freeh,  Die  Karnischen 
Alpeti,  1894. 

Among  studies  of  the  history  of  the  valleys,  Wahner's  Geologische 
Bilder  der  Salzach,  1894,  deserves  particular  attention  since  it  especially 
elucidates  Fig.  9. 

An  excellent  description  of  the  Danube  was  published  by  Penck  in 
1894. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    CARPATHIANS    AND    THE    HUNGARIAN    DANUBE 

The  Carpathians  are  the  continuation  of  the  Alps  ;  yet 
they  are  an  independent  range^  differing  from  the  Alps 
in  some  particulars  of  historical  development  and  internal 
conformation.  Their  deeply  curved  bow  that  runs  from 
the  Gap  of  Deveny  to  the  Iron  Gates  at  Orshova,  does 
not  exhibit  the  symmetry  prevailing  in  the  Eastern 
Alps.  Of  all  the  Alpine  zones,  one  only  is  so  connectedly 
developed  in  the  Carpathians  as  to  bear  witness  to  the 
unity  of  the  chain.  This  connecting  zone  is  the  belt  of 
Carpathian  sandstone,  a  continuation  of  the  Northern  Outer 
Alpine  zone.  That  the  mountains  of  the  latter  zone  do 
not  come  completely  to  an  end  at  the  Wiener  Wald  is 
indeed  shown  by  occasional  low  lines  of  hills  rising  from 
the  Moravian  plain.  The  Little  Carpathians,  however, 
which  divide  the  March  from  the  Lower  Waag,  are  an 
evident  continuation  of  the  Central  Alps.  North  of  them, 
the  two  rivers  are  separated  by  a  firmly  locked  chain  of 
sandstone  mountains.  These  are  the  Beskid  Mountains, 
which,  increasing  in  height  as  they  advance  towards  the 
north-east,  divide  the  Middle  Waag  not  only  from  the 
March,  but  also  from  the  Oder  and  the  Upper  Vistula. 
Even  the  Jablunka  Pass,  the  easy  passage  from  Hungary 
,to  Silesia,  is  surrounded  by  peaks  from  4300  to  4600 
feet  high,  and  the  Babia  Gora  overtops  the  limits  of 
the  forest  by  1300  feet.  The  sandstone  rocks  which 
form  the  middle  section  of  the  Carpathians  divide 
the  sources  of  the  Hernad  and  Theiss  from  those  of 
the  Wisloka  and  San,  which  are  tributaries  of  the 
Vistula,  and  from  those  of  the  Dniester  and  Pruth  ; 
they    also,    like    the     Beskid     Mountains,    constitute    the 


48  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

boundary  of  Hungary  and  of  the  basin  of  the  Danube. 
This  outer  belt  of  sandstone  welds  together  in  a  mighty 
ring  the  fragments  of  elder  mountains  that  lie  within  its 
curve  ;  its  highest  points  are  the  grassy  tops  of  the 
Czerna  Hora  (6652  feet),  which  rise  from  woodlands 
between  the  sources  of  the  Theiss  and  Pruth.  In  the 
east  of  Transylvania,  too,  the  valley  basins  of  Csik  and 
Haromsek,  which  feed  the  Alt,  are  divided  from  the 
Moldau  by  sandstone  mountains. 

In  height,  breadth,  and  connectedness,  the  wooded 
sandstone  mountains  of  the  Carpathian  chain  are  far 
superior  to  their  kindred  of  the  Outer  Alps ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  northern  limestone  Alps  are  but 
faintly  reproduced  by  a  zone  of  limestone  crags  which, 
from  the  Middle  Waag  to  Transylvania,  appears  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  sandstone  curve.  In  these  crags 
we  behold  the  remnants  of  an  old  mountain  forma- 
tion broken  up  by  changes  of  the  earth's  shape,  and 
further  damaged,  before  and  after  the  beginning  of 
the  Tertiary  period,  by  breakers  of  the  sea.  The  rocky 
fretted  crags  of  limestone  stand  out  singly  or  in  long, 
but  often  broken,  rows,  amid  the  gentle  forms  of  the 
surrounding  landscape,  where  their  very  isolation  makes 
them  striking.  The  limestone  formation  of  Nagy 
Hagymash,  at  the  source  of  the  Marosh,  recalls  the  bold 
outlines  of  the  Dolomites  in  the  Southern  Tyrol.  Neai 
Kronstadt  (Brasso)  rises  the  mighty  bulk  of  the  Bucsecs 
(8289  feet),  the  limestone  nucleus  of  which  is  over- 
laid by  conglomerates,  incorporating  pebbles  from  a  sea- 
shore. This  is  the  great  final  pillar  of  the  limestone 
mountains. 

Except  the  Bucsecs,  none  of  these  mountains  can 
compare  in  height  with  the  peaks  of  primitive  rock 
which — though  less  firmly  connected — repeat  in  the 
Carpathians  the  central  zone  of  the  Alps.  In  the 
north-west  and  the  south-east  rocks  of  high  geological 
antiquity  extend  to  considerable  breadth,  and  rise  to 
heights  of  8000  feet.  The  two  mountain  countries 
of    which    they    form    the    core — Upper    Hungary    and 


CARPATHIANS   AND    HUNGARIAN   DANUBE     49 

Transylvania — are  ethnographically  entitled  as  homes 
of  the  Slovaks  and  of  the  Roumanians  to  be  reckoned 
separately,  while  between  them,  up  to  the  sandstone 
belt  of  the  Middle  Carpathians,  stretches  the  Magyar 
Plain.  The  most  beautiful  part  of  the  Carpathians  is 
certainly  the  High  Tatra,  with  whose  pyramids  of  granite 


Fig.  12. — The  Lake  Region  of  the  High  Tatra 


(7500  to  8700  feet)  nothing  in  the  Alps — unless  it  be 
the  Aiguilles  of  Mont  Blanc — can  be  compared.  The 
\'alleys,  once  filled  by  great  glaciers,  are  now  sprinkled 
with  dark  tarns. 

In  Transylvania,  the  rock  of  the  primitive  formation 
divides  into  three  groups,  standing  around  the  area  of 
depression  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  province.  To 
the  north-east,  between  the  rivers  Theiss  and  Marosh,  lie 
the  Rodna  Mountains ;  on  the  west,  bounding  that  part  of 


50  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Transylvania,  are  mighty  mountains  of  which  the  nucleus 
is  of  old  crystalline  rock  ;  but  the  greatest  development 
lies  on  the  south  in  a  belt  that  runs  i8o  miles,  starting 
from  the  Torzburg  Pass  at  Kronstadt,  going  first  to  the 
west,  then  to  the  south-west  and  south,  and  ending  at  the 
Iron  Gates.  Amid  these  thickly  wooded  and  thinly 
peopled  South  Carpathians  three  groups,  marked  by 
circular  valleys,  high  lakes,  and  traces  of  glaciers,  surpass 
the  height  of  8000  feet.  These  are  the  Negoi  in  the 
mountains  of  Fogarash,  Mount  Mandra,  and  the  Retyezat. 
Remarkable  transverse  valleys  push  across  the  separate 
chains  and  sometimes  across  the  whole  breadth  of  these 
mountains.  The  Rothe  Thurm  Pass — the  valley  in  which 
the  Alt,  as  it  comes  from  Hermannstadt  (Nagy  Szeben), 
cuts  through  the  whole  mass  of  primitive  rock  in  order  to 
reach  the  lower  lands  of  Roumania— is  perhaps  the  most 
wonderful  trench  by  which  any  river  of  our  continent 
manages  to  cross  a  line  of  ancient  mountains.  This  lane 
amid  the  rocks  has  from  very  early  times  been  an  avenue 
of  communication,  and  is  easier  of  passage  than  the 
shorter  valley  in  which  the  Scyl  breaks  through  from 
the  Petrosheny  val.ley — a  basin  with  valuable  deposits  of 
Tertiary  coal — and  escapes  by  a  narrow  gorge  between 
very  high  mountains  into  Roumania. 

Valleys  of  similar  character  occur  in  Upper  Hungary. 
The  Tatra  mountains  stand  between  the  narrow  valleys  of 
the  Arva  and  the  Poprad  ;  the  former  begins  among  the 
sandstones  on  the  north,  and  makes  its  way  southward 
through  the  older  rocks  to  the  Waag,  but  the  Poprad  has 
its  source  south  of  the  granite  mountains,  and  passes 
through  a  deep  slit  of  valley  on  their  east  to  reach  its 
junction  with  the  Dunaiets  in  the  basin  of  the  Vistula. 

While  these  transversal  valleys  have  no  marked  resem- 
blance to  anything  in  the  Alps,  the  main  lines  of  the  Alps 
are  recalled  by  the  great  longitudinal  valleys  that  lie 
among  and  even  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Upper  Hungarian 
mountains.  The  Waag,  the  Upper  Poprad,  and  the 
Hernad  together  form  a  curve  of  valleys  of  the  utmost 
importance    to    inter-communication,    and    although    the 


CARPATHIANS   AND    HUNGARIAN   DANUBE     51 

heights  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Tatra  are  considerable, 
the  passages  from  the  water-land  of  the  Baltic  to  those  of 
the  Black  Sea  are  extremely  easy. 

The  part  of  the  Alps  least  represented  in  the  Car- 
pathians is  the  continuation  of  the  southern  limestone  Alps. 
Their  rocks  re-emerge  from  the  ground  of  the  Hungarian 
plain  in  the  Bakonyan  Forest  near  lake  Balaton,  and  once 
more  in  the  hills  of  the  capital.  But  large  distances 
separate  the  limestone  mountains  of  Upper  Hungary  and 
Transylvania,  both  remarkable  for  far-famed  caverns. 

The  inner  side  of  the  curve  formed  by  the  Carpathians 
is  bounded  by  the  lines  of  fracture  surrounding  the  great 
area  of  depression  which  is  the  plain  of  Hungary. 
Opportunities  of  measuring  the  depth  at  which  portions 
of  the  old  rock  are  sunk 
below    the     surface     occur     "^^^^^  ^^  i>^.u  (^       „„^ 

but    rarely.      Some    boring     .^ZZT^^^'^— -^T^  '-■   -T 

operations,  however,  under-  \  ^        ^^ 

taken     in     the     Communal  T-t„~~, . 

Park    of    Pest,    only    came  ».«"t~,. 

on  the  dolomite,  of  which  Fig.  13.— Section  of  the  Ground  under 
the  hills  of  Buda  (Ofen)  are  Buda-Pest. 

formed,  at  a  depth  of   3000 

feet.  This  rock  is  thus  sunk  not  less  than  4300  feet  below 
the  level  which  it  retains  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Danube.  It  is  from  the  lines  of  fracture  along  the  dis- 
location that  the  famous  hot  springs  of  the  capital  rise. 
At  other  places,  these  lines  of  fracture  running  round 
the  lowlands  of  Hungary  have  served  as  outlets  for 
masses  of  rock  in  a  state  of  igneous  liquefaction.  These 
rocks  in  noble  and  varied  mountain  forms  now  constitute 
the  innermost  volcanic  zone  of  the  Carpathian  curve  (Fig.  2), 
which  far  surpasses  anything  corresponding  in  the  Alpine 
formation. 

The  best  of  Hungarian  wines  used  to  come  from  the 
detritus  of  volcanic  rock  lying  along  the  outer  slope  to 
the  plain  of  the  Danube  and  Theiss,  but  the  phylloxera 
has  now  devastated  many  of  the  old  and  famous  vine- 
yards here. 
5 


52  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Even  the  very  narrow  centre-piece  of  the  Carpathians, 
which  is  formed  almost  wholly  of  sandstone,  does  not  lack 
an  inner  foreground  of  volcanic  rocks.  The  valleys  at  the 
source  of  the  Theiss  (Maramarosh)  and  of  some  of  its 
tributaries  are  shut  off  from  the  plain  by  such  ridges  as 
those  of  the  Vihorlat  and  Gutin.  The  most  extensive 
trachyte  mountains  in  Europe,  however,  are  those  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Transylvania. 

The  last  link  of  the  Carpathians  is  formed  by  the 
mountains  of  the  Banat  between  the  Czerna,  the  Temesh, 
and  the  Danube.  Their  folds,  which  run  nearly  in  the 
direction  of  the  meridian,  and  are  cut  across  in  a  wild 
ravine  by  the  Danube,  supply  the  connection  between  the 
Carpathians  and  the  Balkans,  and  form  so  mighty  a 
barrier  between  the  plains  of  Hungary  and  Roumania, 
that  traffic  is  unmistakably  committed  to  the  railway  line 
at  the  "  Porta  Orientalis,"  or  to  the  waterway  of  the 
Danube.  The  interior  of  the  wooded  mountains  is  popu- 
lous by  reason  of  their  wealth  of  coal  and  iron. 

When  the  first  period  of  the  Tertiary  epoch  (the 
Eocene)  was  over,  and  when  the  folding  of  the  rocks, 
r^^^  working    through    long    ages,    had    already 

Hungarian  built  up  the  great,  firmly-connected  Car- 
Danube  and  pathian  curve,  the  outer  mountains  were 
Lowland.  g^jjj    surrounded,    and   the    area    of    depres- 

sion within  the  mountain  enclosure  was  still  filled  by  a 
sea — the  Miocene  sea.  It  left  behind  the  clays  and  sands 
of  that  soft  undulating  hill  country,  divided  up  by  streams, 
which  forms  the  inner  and  outer  borders  of  the  Car- 
pathians, and  in  the  bosom  of  which  lie  hidden  great 
deposits  of  salt.  The  formation  of  these  salt  beds  is  no 
doubt  connected  with  the  slow  disappearance  of  that 
Miocene  sea  which  lost  by  degrees  its  free  communication 
with  the  ocean  and  the  connection  between  its  several 
parts.  The  sea  was  replaced  by  brackish  lakes,  the 
extent  and  saltness  of  which  continued  to  grow  less, 
until  the  bed  of  the  old  waters  was  laid  dry  and  became 
an  arena  for  the  action  of  winds  and  rivers. 


AUSTIfTA-HUiria 


BATHY-OROGRAPHICAL. 


J  G  Bsnliul^iBw. 


CARPATHIANS   AND    HUNGARIAN    DANUBE     53 

In  the  Upper  Hungarian  plain  (the  Little  Alfold) 
between  the  Alps  and  the  Bakonyan  Forest,  great 
portions  of  the  surface — some  6000  square  miles — were 
covered  with  rubble  brought  down,  not  only  by  the  Raab 
from  the  Alps,  and  by  the  Waag,  Neutra,  and  Gran  from 
the  Carpathians,  but  also  by  the  Danube. 

Above  Waitzen  (Vacz)  the  Danube  makes  its  way 
through  picturesque  gorges  overlooked  by  the  ruined  royal 
castle  of  Vishegrad  into  the  lower  plain  of  Hungary  (the 
Alfold).  The  extent  of  this  plain  is  greater  (36,000  square 
miles),  its  surface  still  more  gently  inclined,  its  soil  of  finer 
grain.  How  deep  was  the  basin  which  had  to  be  filled 
up  by  the  deposits  of  rivers  running  into  the  Alpine  sea, 
we  learn  by  boring  into  the  middle  of  the  plain.  The 
Tertiary  schists,  which  form  the  hills  of  the  mountain- 
frame,  are  in  places  only  touched  at  a  depth  of  650  feet. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  sea  became  gradually  smaller  and 
shallower.  Its  last  traces  are  to  be  found  in  the  innumer- 
able shallow  pans  which  still  hold  brackish  quagmires,  or 
have  white  crystals  of  carbonate  of  soda  shining  from 
their  loamy  beds-  For  the  most  part,  however,  the  sur- 
face of  diluvial  clay,  which  once  filled  the  whole  of  the 
plain,  has  been  covered  by  later  formations  brought 
hither  and  shaped  by  the  wind.  Wide  areas  are  covered 
by  the  fertile  loess — a  loam  which  in  its  dry  state  crumbles 
and  can  be  rubbed  into  fine  powder — the  unstratified 
deposit  of  dust  storms.  This  is  not  confined  to  the  flat 
plains  ;  the  mountain  slopes  that  surround  the  plains  or 
rise  like  islands  from  them  are  half  buried  under  great 
cushions  of  it.  Where  rivers  have  cut  their  valleys  into  the 
plain,  the  steep  edge  of  the  layer  of  loess  on  their  inclines 
becomes  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  landscape.  Very 
different  in  form  and  in  agricultural  value  are  the  dunes 
of  loose  sand  which  prevail  without  a  break  over  many 
tracts  away  from  the  great  river  valleys.  The  t.wo  largest 
of  these  undulating  lakes  of  sand  have  now  been  reduced 
in  great  measure  by  the  continued  efforts  of  cultivation  ; 
they  are  named  Rumania,  between  the  Danube  and  the 
Theiss,    and    Nyir  —  so  called    from    long   extinct   birch 


54  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

trees — near  Debreczin,  within  the  northward  curve  of 
the  Theiss.  Acacias  have  given  firmness  to  the  moving 
hills,  and  large  stretches  of  waste  land  have  become 
fruitful  as  vineyards.  In  the  sandy  district  of  the 
Temesh  Comitat,  also,  near  the  spot  where  the  Danube 
leaves  the  Hungarian  lowland,  agriculture  has  pushed 
forward  its  conquests  ;  but  this,  nevertheless,  is  the 
strip  of  Europe  which  comes  nearest  to  resembling  the 
shifting  sand  deserts  of  other  continents.  The  Hungarian 
sand  dunes,  however,  do  not  lie  in  an  entirely  waterless 
landscape  ;  on  the  contrary  they  sometimes  tend  to 
hinder  the  outflow  of  water.  Tracts  that  have  become 
bogs  occur  in  consequence  in  their  immediate  neighbour- 
hood, and  only  by  degrees  have  these  marshes,  with  their 
thickets  of  reeds — a  paradise  for  aquatic  birds — been 
freed  from  water  and  given  over  to  cultivation. 

The  very  nature  of  the  soil  thus  prevents  a  develop- 
ment of  perfect  sameness  throughout  this  great  lowland. 
The  one  characteristic  common  to  all  parts  of  it  is  poverty 
of  wood.  Each  of  the  methods  of  making  use  of  land 
occupies  wide  areas.  There  are  still  vast  plains  of 
pasturage,  upon  which  herds  of  horses  run  free,  and 
which  supply  food  to  hundreds  of  white,  large-horned 
cattle  and  to  myriads  of  sheep.  But  the  picture  of  the 
Pusta  which  was  true  only  a  few  decades  ago,  the  much 
be-sung  *'  steppe  dreaming  of  the  ocean,"  is  gradually 
fading  before  the  advance  of  agriculture.  More  and  more 
farms  are  always  being  planted  out  in  this  vast  territory 
by  people  from  the  populous  but  village-like  towns.  Ac- 
cording to  the  soil,  fields  of  maize  and  wheat,  and  planta- 
tions of  hemp,  tobacco,  or  vines,  are  always  being  pushed 
farther  forward.  Passengers  travelling  by  express  trains 
through  this  battlefield  of  human  labour  are  astounded 
by  the  amazingly  quick  change  of  scenes. 

The  Danube  and  Theiss  run  parallel  through  the 
whole  width  of  the  lowlands,  from  north  to  south — two 
sisters  differing  in  size  and  character.  The  fall  of  the 
Theiss  in  this  part  is  scarcely  half  that  of  the  larger  river. 
The  lower  reach,  in  particular,  from  Segedin  to  the  end 


CARPATHIANS   AND    HUNGARIAN    DANUBE     55 

of  the  Theiss — 150  miles — has  the  minimum  fall  of  only 
1 5  feet.  Any  considerable  rising  of  the  Danube,  therefore, 
at  once  drives  back  the  Theiss.  When  the  snows  melt  on 
the  Carpathians  around  the  Theiss  basin,  serious  conse- 
quences soon  ensue  ;  through  all  the  watercourses  from 
the  Hernad  to  the  Samosh  and  the  Korosh  come  vast 
quantities  of  water  flowing  simultaneously  into  the  Theiss, 
while  exactly  at  Segedin,  the  third  river  of  Transylvania, 
the  Marosh,  falls  in  and  further  increases  the  flood.  It  was 
in  such  a  conjuncture  that,  on  the  12th  of  March  1879, 
Segedin  was  destroyed  by  an  inundation.  Stronger 
dikes  have  been  erected  as  a  safeguard  against  the  re- 
currence of  the  danger. 

The  whole  mountain  course  of  the  Danube  from  Bazi- 
ash  to  Turn  Severin  is  85  miles  long,  of  which  the  reach 
from  Old  Moldova  to  the  lower  end  of  the  Iron  Gates, 
still  difficult  and  formerly  dangerous  of  navigation,  occu- 
pies 68.  The  romantic  rocky  avenue  of  this  reach,  com- 
bined with  a  profusion  of  changing  pictures  for  the 
tourist,  was  an  accumulation  of  all  conceivable  hindrances 
to  traffic.  The  variations  of  fall  were  extreme,  the  total 
descent  amounting  to  83  feet ;  the  width  repeatedly 
changed,  and  varied  from  160  3'ards  to  2400  ;  the  depth, 
which  at  low  water  fell  in  places  to  no  more  than  four 
feet — and  that  amid  threatening  rocks  and  shoals — in- 
creased in  narrows  where  the  stream  was  strong  to  more 
than  170  feet,  and  the  bed  of  the  river  in  such  places  lay 
lower  than  the  level  of  the  sea  600  miles  away.  The 
removal  of  the  impediments  was  undertaken,  at  the  Berlin 
Congress  of  1878,  by  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  enterprise 
has  been  carried  through,  at  a  cost  of  nineteen  million 
gulden  (more  than  ^1,500,000).  The  aim  pursued,  which 
was  the  establishment  throughout  of  a  channel  200  feet 
wide  and  6  feet  5  inches  deep,  has  been  attained.  At 
the  Iron  Gate  of  Orshova,  however,  this  could  only  be 
achieved  by  cutting  out  of  the  solid  rock  a  canal  2700  yards 
long,  which  runs  on  the  Servian  shore  and  avoids  the 
host  of  rocks  amid  which  navigation  had  hitherto  threaded 
its  perilous  course.     In  this  canal,  owing  to  the  steepness 


56  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

of  the  fall,  the  stream  runs  with  great  rapidity — at  the 
rate  of  from  13  to  16  feet  per  second.  It  has  a  depth 
of  8  feet  2  inches,  which  permits  even  the  larger  ships  of 
the  Lower  Danube  to  come  up  to  Orshova,  the  terminus 
of  the  Hungarian  railway  system. 

The  facilities  for  navigation  will  give  life  to  the  traffic 
of  the  country  west  of  the  Danube,  as  well  as  to  the  dis- 
tricts of  the  Danube  and  Theiss.  The  largest  lake  of  Cen- 
tral Europe,  however,  the  Flatten  See,  or  Lake  Balaton, 
266  square  miles,  is  completely  cut  off  from  the  Hungarian 
system  of  navigable  rivers.  It  has  no  commercial  import- 
ance, except  in  so  far  as  fish  may  be  caught  and  reeds  cut 
in  it.  On  the  Drave  navigation  goes  up  to  Legrad,  and 
on  the  Save  to  Sissek,  whence  little  boats  ascend  the  Kulpa 
to  Karlstadt.  This  point,  distant  by  water  500  miles 
from  the  Danube  and  1300  miles  from  the  Black  Sea,  is 
but  40  miles  away  from  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic.  But 
the  old  legend  of  the  Argonauts'  voyage  from  the  Ister 
to  Istria  will  never  come  true.  The  mountains  utter 
an  inexorable  veto. 

Note  on  Authorities. — The  most  exhaustive  work  upon  the  Car- 
pathians was  written  in  the  Polish  language  by  Rehmann  in  1895  '■> 
this  was  made  accessible  to  German  readers  by  E.  von  Romer's 
abridgment  {Mitteilungen  der  Kaiserlich-Koniglichen  Geograpkischen 
Gesellschaft,  Vienna,  1896). 

Among  the  best  descriptions  of  separate  parts  are  the  works  of 
V.  Uhlig,  Geologic  des  Tatra  Gebirges  {Denkschriften  der  Kaiserlich- 
Koniglichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,  math,  naturw.  Klasse,  Ixiv., 
Ixviii.,  Vienna,  1897,  1899),  and  Der  Pieniiiische  Klippenzug  {Jahrbuch 
der  Kaiserlich-Koniglichen  Reichsanstalt  XL,  \  890). 

The  geographical  division  of  the  mountains  is  dealt  with  by  Ferdi- 
nand Pax  in  the  introduction  to  the  Grundzilge  der  PJlanzenverbreitung 
in  den  Karpathen,  1898.  Fig.  13  is  taken  from  Szabo's  Geologic  von 
Buda-Pest^  1879. 

The  Hungarian  Geographical  Society  is  publishing  a  great  general 
work  about  Lake  Balaton  (the  Platten-See). 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    ILLYRIAN    CHAINS,    THE    BALKAN,    AND 
THE    LOWER    DANUBE 

Under  the  name  of  the  Illyrian  Chains  it  may  be  per- 
mitted to  include  the  whole  of  the  mountains  from  the 
Adriatic  to  the  Servian  Drin,  from  the  Isonzo  to  the 
Lake  of  Scutari,  and  from  the  Save  to  the  Amselfeld 
(Kossovo  Polye).  Within  this  space,  however,  lie  moun- 
tains differing  greatly  in  antiquity  and  in  formation,  and 
contrasting  widely  in  their  external  shapes. 

The  Karst  is  most  clearly  distinguishable.  This  name, 
which  belongs  in  the  first  instance  to  the  low  mountains 
between  Trieste  and  the  basin  of  Laibach,  has  been 
extended  by  the  scientific  to  the  special  characteristic 
forms  of  limestone  mountains,  the  surface  and  interior 
of  which  have  been  affected  by  the  solvent  chemical 
action  of  water.  Scenery  of  the  Karst  type  prevails 
along  the  north-eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic  throughout 
a  belt  from  sixty  to  ninety  miles  in  breadth,  extending 
from  the  plateau  at  the  foot  of  the  Triglav  to  the  sterile 
highlands  of  Montenegro,  which  fall  away  in  steps,  not 
only  westward  to  the  sea,  but  also  southward  towards 
the  Albanian  lowland  around  the  lake  of  Scutari  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Boyana.  This  whole  district  consists 
chiefly  of  thick  limestone  rocks  belonging  to  the  middle 
grades  of  the  sedimentary  series  (Cretaceous  but  also 
Triassic)  ;  and  these  deposits  are  corrugated  in  south- 
easterly folds  that  are  softly  rounded,  not  closely  pressed 
together,  and  therefore  more  favourable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  plateaux  than  of  narrow  ridges.  In  the  troughs 
between  the  folds  lie  long  stretches  of  more  recent 
sandstones,  valuable   because  they  retain  water   and  are 


58  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

thus  better  suited  to  vegetation   than  the  belts  of   lime- 
stone. 

The  surface  of  the  limestone  mountains  has  grown 
singularly  rough  and  uneven  under  the  solvent  action 
of  the  water  shed  by  the  fiercest  .rainfalls  of  Europe. 
Sometimes  the  limestone  is  fretted  by  irregularly 
bordered  furrows,  between  which  project  rough,  sharp- 
edged  ribs  of  rock.  But  more  peculiar  to  the  Karst  than 
these  stretches  of  "  Karren,"  which  we  have  already  met 
on  the  Alps,  are  the  eroded  formations  of  the  "  dolines," 
rounded  funnels  or  pans  of  very  varied  dimensions,  which 
break  the  smoothness  of  the  surface  quite  irregularly, 
many  lying  sometimes  close  together,  like  pock-marks  in 
the  skin  of  a  human  face.  A  close  examination  of  the 
''  dolines  "  intersected  by  a  railway  cutting,  often  shows 
us  that  they  have  been  dissolved  out  of  firm  rock  by  the 
chemical  destruction  of  its  substance ;  they  are  funnels 
eaten  out  from  above  by  waters  which  gradually  worked 
their  way  to  the  depths,  not  through  considerable 
openings,  but  through  indistinguishable  cracks.  Even  in 
Karst  districts  that  have  been  overgrown  by  woods,  this 
unevenness  of  the  rocky  substratum  reveals  itself  in 
innumerable  sharp  edges  of  rock  breaking  through  their 
mossy  covering,  and  in  the  number  of  deep  holes 
between  which  the  way  winds  or  ascends  and  descends. 
But  the  Karst  in  its  barrenness  is  forbidding — a  pathless 
wilderness  of  rock,  a  labyrinth  of  irregular  forms  that  yet 
recur  monotonously  over  wide  expanses,  dry  and  dead  as 
a  lunar  landscape. 

The  stubborn  intractability  of  the  Karst  to  vegetation 
is  due  less  to  the  absence  of  soft  soil — for  sometimes, 
when  it  is  not  swept  away  by  storms,  the  hollows  of  the 
surface  will  be  filled  by  "  red  earth  "  {terra  rossa),  a  clayey 
residuum  from  the  chemical  decomposition  of  the  rock — 
but  rather  to  the  more  general,  and  far  more  serious,  lack  of 
water.  Rich  as  are  the  rainfalls  of  the  whole  Karst  district, 
the  water  quickly  disappears  into  the  clefts  and  holes  of  the 
fretted  rock,  and  transfers  its  circulation,  and  a  part  of  its 
geological  action  to  the  dark  heart  of  the  mountains. 


ILLVRIAN    CHAINS,   THE    BALKAN,    ETC.       59 

The  whole  mass  of  the  Karst  is  not  indeed  filled  like 
a  sponge  with  a  network  of  hollows,  but  it  is  literally  true 
that  the  interiors  of  the  great  mountains  are  pierced  by 
large  branching  passages,  which  in  one  place  will  draw  in 
and  become  narrow  pipes,  and  in  another  will  widen  out 
into  spacious  halls.  These  are  formed  by  the  chemical 
and  mechanical    erosion   of  the  water,   which  coming  in 


Fig.  14. — The  Hydrography  of  the  Karst. 


from  the  surface,  collects  in  great  reservoirs,  and  makes 
lakes  and  rivers  that,  after  flowing  long  in  darkness, 
emerge  as  considerable  streams.  Thus  a  great  part  of 
the  water  system,  which  in  general  divides  and  moulds 
the  face  of  the  country,  flows  in  the  Karst  district  under- 
ground. There  are  large  areas  with  no  series  of  open, 
descending  valleys  ;  ill-developed,  fragmentary  valleys  run 
in    a   deep   furrow  for   a  few   miles,  only  to   be   stopped 


6o  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

short  by  a  wall  of  rock  ;  their  streams  disappear  into  its 
caverns,  and  only  come  to  light  again  at  a  consider- 
able distance,  under  other  names.  Like  Greece,  which 
was  the  home  of  the  belief  in  the  transmigration  of 
souls,  the  Karst  country,  from  the  Adelsberg  grotto 
to  the  valley  of  the  Zeta  bisecting  Montenegro,  is 
full  of  rivers  which  disappear  through  the  gates  of 
the  nether  world  to  find  a  speedy  resurrection,  some 
of  them  repeating  the  process  two  or  three  times. 

A  particularly  striking  feature  of  these  half  hidden, 
half  open  watercourses  is  furnished  by  the  so  -  called 
"  polye,"  large  valleys  often  measuring  a  hundred  square 
miles  and  more,  which  mostly  follow  the  main  direction 
of  the  mountains,  and  as  a  rule  are  only  drained  under- 
ground through  sink-holes.  These  holes  or  "  ponors " 
open  sometimes  in  the  midst  of  the  valley,  sometimes 
on  its  borders,  sometimes  even  at  a  distance  up  the 
sides.  According  to  the  capacity  of  the  conduits  and 
its  relation  to  the  water  supply  from  springs,  rivers,  and 
rainfall,  many  of  the  "  polye "  are  at  certain  seasons 
dry  and  at  others  covered  for  months  by  a  sheet  of 
water.  The  soil  being  fertile  and  abundantly  watered, 
these  depressions  amid  arid  limestone  ridges,  are  often 
populous  and  industrious  centres.  But  their  morasses 
are  not  infrequently  hotbeds  of  fever,  and  they  are 
sometimes  imperfectly  ventilated,  whereas  the  mighty 
gusts  of  the  Bora  sweep  wildly  over  the  heights  and 
rush  down  to  the  coast  on  to  the  warm  sea. 

Sometimes  the  longitudinal  division  of  the  land  has 
been  accentuated  by  the  sea.  Its  waves  fill  submerged 
valleys,  from  between  which  rise  light  grey  ridges  of 
limestone  in  long  islands  like  gnawed  bones.  Narrow 
streaks  of  sea  divide  Veglia,  Arbe,  and  Pago  from  the 
steep  chain  of  the  Velebit,  which  runs  along  the  edge 
of  the  Croatian  mainland.  The  coast  of  Zara,  continuing 
the  line  of  these  islands,  still  remains  cut  off  from  the 
open  Adriatic  by  the  outer  chain  of  islands  beginning 
with  Cherso  and  Lussin.  Punta  Planca  appears  like 
a  continuation  of  them  incorporated  with  the  mainland. 


ILLYRIAN   CHAINS,  THE   BALKAN,    ETC.       6i 

Immediately  beyond  this  mountain  projection,  however, 
which  receives  the  direct  impact  of  the  open  sea,  the 
coast  again  breaks  up  into  the  South  Dalmatian  archi- 
pelago, extending  from  Spalato  to  Ragusa.  Under  the 
shelter  of  the  host  of  high  islands  lie  many  safe  anchor- 
ages and  good  harbours.  In  several  places  a  narrow 
entrance   leads   into   an    extensive    enclosed    basin,   easily 


Fig,  15. — The  Underground  Drainage  of  Illyria. 

to  be  recognised  as  a  submerged  valley.  In  a  few  cases 
several  valloni  unite  into  branching  inland  basins.  Thus, 
behind  the  harbour  of  Sebenico  lies  what  was  once  a 
small  second  valley  united  to  the  first  by  a  narrow 
channel,  forming  the  basin  into  which  the  Kerka  falls. 
The  famous  harbour  system  of  the  Bocche  di  Cattaro  at 
the  foot  of  the  Montenegran  mountains  is  made  of  three 
submerged  longitudinal  valleys  connected  by  cross-way 
openings. 


62  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

The  absence  of  valleys  opening  from  the  coast  towards 
the  land  is  an  inevitable  consequence  of  the  Karst  charac- 
teristics. To  this  general  defect,  which  so  retards  the 
development  and  so  lessens  the  value  of  many  extensive 
districts,  one  exception,  all  the  more  important  on  account 
of  its  rarity,  appears  in  the  valley  of  the  Narenta.  One 
of  the  sources  of  this  valley  is  at  the  foot  of  the  Ivan 
Pass  (3314  feet  high),  by  which  the  easiest  communica- 
tion goes  into  the  central  basin  of  Bosnia.  Thus,  the 
wild  gorges  of  the  Narenta,  traversing  all  the  ridges 
of  the  Karst,  open  the  only  passage  into  the  interior  ;  but 
even  of  this  a  considerable  part  has  only  been  rendered 
accessible  by  the  expedients  of  modern  engineering.  The 
river  itself,  however,  is  always  at  work  to  destroy  these 
advantageous  conditions.  Its  alluvial  deposits  choke  up 
the  mouth,  which  lies  amid  unhealthy  swamps.  More- 
over, the  basin  into  which  the  Narenta  falls,  though 
beautifully  placed  among  the  mountains,  is  most  un- 
desirably cut  off  on  the  south  and  south-west  by  the  long 
bar  of  the  Sabioncello  peninsula.  No  wonder  that  works 
are  in  progress  to  divert  the  Narenta  railway  farther 
eastward,  and  to  employ  Gravosa,  the  splendid  harbour 
of  Ragusa,  as  the  future  principal  port  of  Herzegovina 
and  Bosnia  in  the  place  of  Metkovits  on  the  Narenta, 
which  is  approachable  only  by  small  ships. 

The  boundary  of  the  Karst  in  the  interior  is  often 
very  sharply  marked.  Sometimes  a  few  steps  will  suffice 
to  carry  the  traveller  from  the  limestone  desert  to  the 
carpet  of  turf  in  the  wooded  grove  that  spreads  above 
the  vigorous  mould  of  other  formations.  In  Montenegro 
the  contrast  between  the  scenery  of  the  south-western 
and  the  eastern  half  is  particularly  striking. 

The  eastern  highland  of  Montenegro  is  a  continuation 
of  the  high  mountains  of  Bosnia,  which  are  as  clearly 
divided  from  the  western  part  of  Herzegovina  and  from 
Dalmatia  as  the  greenness  of  Styria  is  from  the  rocky 
deserts  of  Carniola.  It  is  true  that  among  these  moun- 
tains mighty  blocks  of  limestone  occur,  the  age  and 
formation    of    which     (they    are    Triassic)    vividly    recall 


ILLYRIAN   CHAINS,   THE    BALKAN,    ETC.      63 

Southern  Tyrol.  The  inexhaustible  variety,  however,  of 
the  Tyrolese  mountain  forms  is  mainly  represented  here  by 
only  one  prevalent  pattern — broad  bulky  stocks  with  an 
uneven  surface,  but  without  lofty  peaks.  Below  and 
between  such  limestone  masses,  appear  older  schistose 
mountains  with  ore  in  their  veins  and  woods  upon  their 
summits.  The  wildest  of  these  mountain  blocks  (all  over 
7000  feet  high)  surround  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
Narenta.  The  highest  peak  bears  the  melodious  name 
of  Tshwrstnitsa  ;  it  is  less  well  known  and  of  less  impor- 
tance to  science  than  the  Byelashnitsa,  at  the  summit  of 
which  a  meteorological  station  has  been  erected.  The 
north-eastern  portion  of  Bosnia  bordering  upon  Servia 
is  filled  by  thickly-wooded  mountains  of  moderate  height 
and  gentler  forms.  These  are  framed  of  conglomerates, 
sandstones,  and  slates,  the  age  and  formation  of  which 
belong  to  the  same  stage  as  the  Carpathian  sandstone. 
Towards  the  south-east,  however,  the  Triassic  mountains 
of  Bosnia  with  their  limestone  crowns  come  to  an  end,  shut 
off  by  the  broad  tongue  of  primitive  rocks  which  stretches 
from  Macedonia  northwards  towards  Servia. 

The  greater  part  cf  the  extensive   Morava  district  is 

dominated  by  a  broad  wedge  of  old  mountains,  pushed 

out    between   the   Illyrian  chains   and  the    ^       „ 

„   ,,  ,        ,  .     .  .  .      ,  The  Primitive 

Balkans  by  the  primitive  mountain  forma-    >iount\ixs 

tion  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia.     In  Servia,    and  the 

the  primitive  rocks  fall  mainly  into  ridges    Main  Valleys 

stretching    to    the    north  -  west,    enclosing    ^^  Servia  and 

woody  heights  and    fertile  valleys   full   of 

maize  fields  and  plum-tree  plantations.     On  the  highest  of 

these  ridges  rests  the  south-western  boundary  of  Servia, 

but   not   the   boundary  of    the    Morava   basin.      On    the 

contrary,  two  of  its  sources,  the  I  bar  and  the  main  branch 

of  the  Morava  river,  force  their  way  through  the  highest 

portion    of    this    boundary   ridge   into    Turkish    territory. 

The  I  bar  drains  the  Amselfeld  (Kossovo  Polye),  the  field 

of    battle   where   enemies   have   so    often    met   to   decide 

the  fate  of  Servia.     Upon  the  bank  of  the  river,  at  the 


64  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

northern  end  of  the  basin,  the  Turkish  railway  system 
begins  at  Mitrovitza.  The  narrow  trough  of  the  Ibar 
valley,  from  this  point  to  the  Servian  frontier,  has  hitherto 
been  impassable.  Farther  east,  however,  a  mountain  road 
leads  directly  over  from  Servia  into  the  Amselfeld.  The 
Austrian  scheme  for  continuing  the  Bosnian  railway 
through  the  Drina  district  to  Mitrovitza,  and  so  opening 
a  way  of  its  own  to  Salonica,  promises  to  give  greater 
importance  to  the  line  running  across  this  depression. 
The  Amselfeld  railway  has  no  serious  difficulty  in  reach- 
ing the  upper  basin  of  the  Vardar  ;  there  it  joins  the 
Belgrade  and  Salonica  line,  which,  crossing  the  heart  of 
Servia  by  way  of  the  wide  and  open  Morava  valley,  runs 
beside  the  river  to  reach  Turkish  territory  and  the  water- 
shed. The  upper  valley  of  the  Morava  furnishes  the 
easiest  passage  through  the  ancient  mountain  groups  at 
the  core  of  Sclavonic  Southern  Europe.  Its  importance 
is  increased  by  the  height  and  difficulty  of  the  rising 
mountains  into  which  this  group  expands  eastward,  on 
the  northern  confines  of  the  Turkish  Empire  towards 
Bulgaria  and  Roumelia.  From  the  south,  it  is  true,  the 
upper  reaches  of  the  Struma  Valley,  whose  sources  lie  on 
the  Vitosha  not  far  from  Sofia,  ascend  between  mighty 
mountains  into  Bulgarian  territory.  But  the  road  has 
to  traverse  difficult  gorges  before  it  attains  to  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Struma  at  the  hot  springs  of  Kostendil, 
whence  it  proceeds  over  a  high  pass  at  the  west  of  the 
Vitosha  (7518  feet  high)  to  Sofia.  More  to  east  the 
Rila  (9590  feet  high)  far  surpasses  the  level  of  the  pine 
woods  and  obtains  a  more  distinctly  Alpine  character  than 
any  other  of  the  mountains  of  the  peninsula.  Its  fields  of 
snow  shine  afar  until  late  in  the  summer.  The  northern 
slopes  of  its  broad  ridge  are  divided  by  many  valleys,  and 
upon  their  gradations  are  scattered  more  than  a  hundred 
little  lakes,  as  well  as  many  unmistakable  traces  of  glaciers. 
The  eastern  continuation  of  the  Rila,  the  Rhodope  chain, 
heightened  by  copious  eruptions  of  volcanic  rock,  forms 
the  southern  rim  of  the  Roumelian  basin  through  which 
the  Maritza  flows. 


ILLYRIAN   CHAINS,   THE    BALKAN,   ETC.      65 

This  area  of  depression  lies  amid  the  old  mountain 
groups  that  feed  the  rivers  of  the  JEgean  Sea,  and 
occupies  an  important  boundary  position  similar  to  that 
of  the  Morava  valley.  The  roots  of  these  two  valleys, 
however,  and  the  sources  of  the  rivers  Morava  and  Maritza, 
are  separated  by  the  lofty  mountains  around  the  head  of 
the  Struma.  There  is,  nevertheless,  a  slender  passage 
between  the  main  valley  of  Servia  and  that  of  Roumelia. 
It  is  formed  by  the  central  link  in  a  highly  remarkable 
series  of  longitudinal  valleys  embedded  in  the  Balkan 
system,  which  encircle  the  main  line  of  the  Balkans, 
running  in  a  wide  curve  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Danube.  The  Eastern  Roumelian 
portion  of  this  great  chain  of  valleys  follows  a  line  of 
fracture  at  the  steep  southern  foot  of  the  Balkans,  marked 
by  numerous  hot  springs ;  the  Tundja  collects  here  the 
waters  destined  to  enlarge  the  Maritza  at  Adrianople. 
Through  the  north-western  part,  belonging  to  Servia,  flows 
the  Timok  ;  while  the  central  or  Bulgarian  section,  the 
basin  in  which  the  Isker  rises,  is  the  plain  of  Sofia.  The 
importance  of  this  plain  depends  upon  the  convergence 
of  many  roads.  All  are  subordinate  to  the  main  line 
from  Belgrade  to  Constantinople,  whose  principal  stations 
are  Nissa,  Sofia,  and  Philippopolis,  divided  from  one 
another  by  low  barriers. 

While  the  mountains  between  the  Maritza  and  the 
Tundja,  and  also  the  bases  of  the  Vitosha,  show  themselves 
by  their  formation,  age,  and  shapes  to  be  outposts  of  the 
old  Thracian  and  Macedonian  group,  we  shall  find  that 
the  limestone  mountains  of  East  Servia,  between  the 
Timok  and  the-  Morava,  have  extensive  plateaux  and 
present  the  characteristics  of  the  Karst.  In  these  latter 
we  recognise  a  continuation  of  the  mountains  of  the 
Banat.  As  the  contour  of  that  chain  is  closely  conjoined 
to  the  primitive  mountains  of  Transylvania,  so  in  like 
manner  does  the  East  Servian  Karst,  between  the  Timok 
and  the  Danube,  join  the  northern  end  of  the  main 
Balkan  chain. 


66  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Like  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathians,  the  Balkans  have 
been    raised    by    a    mighty    folding     of    the    strata,    but 
they  clearly  differ  from  them  in  the  dis- 
The  Balkans      similar  development  of  their  northern  and 
„-,,^-_,„,,  southern  footlands.     On  the  north  of  the 

Balkans  lies  not  a  foreland,  levelled  by 
the  deposit  of  later  rocks,  but  the  Bulgarian  tableland 
trenched  by  the  Balkan  streams,  with  surface  formations 
(Cretaceous)  which  are  older  than  the  completion  of  the 
mountain  foldings.  On  the  south,  the  Balkans  are  cut  off 
by  lines  of  fracture,  though  the  descent  towards  these  does 
not,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Po  and  the  Theiss,  lead  to  an  area 
of  depression  in  the  form  of  a  wide-spread  plain,  but  into 
a  land  of  lively  and  varied  contours,  where  the  rem- 
nants of  ancient  mountains  rise  amid  valleys  and  basins. 
It  might  at  first  appear  remarkable  that  this  fractured 
edge  should  occur,  not  on  the  concave  but  on  the  convex 
side  of  the  Balkan  curve.  The  abnormality,  however, 
disappears  when  we  perceive  that  the  Balkans  are  but 
the  western  wing  of  a  great  chain  of  mountains,  continued 
in  the  Crimea  and  the  Caucasus,  the  combined  curve  of 
which  opens  southwards  towards  the  depth  of  the  Black 
Sea.  It  is  the  concave  side  of  this  now  disrupted  range 
which  is  marked  by  fractures  and  depressions. 

The  internal  structure  and  physiognomy  of  the  Balkans 
vary  in  the  extent  of  their  long  course,  and  a  division 
into  three  sections  appears  desirable.  The  Western 
Balkans  are  bounded  by  the  two  famous  gorges  in  which 
the  Danube  and  the  Isker  force  their  passages,  the  latter, 
as  Herodotus  says,  "  splitting  the  mountain  through  the 
middle."  This  section,  in  which  the  heights  gradually 
fall  to  moderate  hills,  is  traversed  by  the  Timok,  along 
which  a  whole  group  of  Roman  roads,  meeting  at  Nissa, 
passed  towards  the  gate  of  the  Danube  and  Transylvania. 
But  immediately  south  of  the  Timok  valley  the  Western 
Balkans  (Stara  Planina)  close  to  a  single  ridge,  and  the 
roads  from  Nissa  and  Sofia  to  Lom  Palanka  on  the 
Danube  are  obliged  to  make  a  considerable  ascent  in 
order  to  surmount  the  barrier. 


ILLYRIAN   CHAINS,  THE   BALKAN,   ETC.      67 

In  the  Central  Balkans  the  intensity  of  the  mountain 
folding  was  such  that,  in  spite  of  the  immense  denuding 
process  of  long  ages,  great  broad  summits  of  primitive 
rock,  such  as  the  Yumruktshal  (8104  feet),  still  remain. 
Few  of  the  passes,  drenched  with  blood  in  many  cam- 
paigns, will  in  the  future,  after  the  boring  of  the  tunnel  at 
Orkhanie,  be  of  importance,  not  even  the  famous  Shipka 
(4375  feet).  The  ascent  to  this  from  Ternova,  the  old 
royal  capital  of  Bulgaria,  by  way  of  the  Yantra  valley,  is 
easy,  but  on  the  southern  slope  the  road  descending  to 
the  rose  gardens  of  Kazanlik  follows  long  windings  on  the 
face  of  the  steep  incline. 

The  precipitous  southern  slope,  the  descent  of  which 
from  the  Central  Balkans  to  Roumelia  is  everywhere 
rendered  delightful  by  a  milder  climate  and  a  more  strik- 
ing flora,  is  also  a  characteristic  of  the  Eastern  Balkans, 
where  the  lines  of  fracture  on  the  southern  edge  are 
marked,  not  only  by  hot  springs,  but  by  accumulations  of 
volcanic  rock  in  the  mountain  country  between  Yamboli 
and  Burgas,  the  Tundja  and  the  Black  Sea.  In  other 
respects  the  eastern  wing  of  the  Balkans  is  very  clearly 
distinguished  from  the  western  wing  of  the  same  moun- 
tains. For  while  in  the  former,  and  especially  on  its 
steep  southern  edge,  old  schists  and  gneiss  are  extensively 
present,  the  prevalent  rocks  throughout  the  eastern  wing 
are  sandstones  and  schistous  marls  that  recall  the  Car- 
pathian sandstone.  These  formations,  pushed  together 
into  folds,  compose  not  a  single  lofty  ridge,  but  several 
parallel  chains  of  moderate  height.  The  mountains  gain 
in  breadth  and  lose  in  altitude.  The  Demir  Kapu  (Iron 
Gate),  3600  feet  high,  between  Sliven  and  Ternova,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  boundary  of  the  Central  Balkans, 
is  the  last  pass  in  which  one  single  severe  ascent  is  neces- 
sary— but  also  sufficient — for  the  passage  from  Roumelia 
to  Bulgaria.  From  this  point  towards  the  east  the  height 
of  the  mountains  drops  rapidly,  and  an  abundance  of 
roads,  none  of  which  rises  to  above  1600  feet,  take 
their  way  through  the  wooded  undulations  of  the 
hilly   district  traversed   by  the  Kamtshik.     At  this  point 


68  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  Balkan  chain  ceased  to  constitute  a  strong  protec- 
tion to  Roumelia,  and  required  in  its  turn  to  be  pro- 
tected by  the  Bulgarian  quadrilateral.  As  the  eastern 
close  of  the  Balkans  is  marked  on  the  coast  line  of  the 
Black  Sea  by  the  promontory  of  Cape  Emineh  (Emon)^ 
beset  with  Greek  monasteries,  so  is  the  great  longitudinal 
valley  that  follows  the  foot  of  the  mountains  represented 
by  the  bay  of  Burgas.  Shallow  lagoons  surround  the 
shore  of  the  Roumelian  harbour  ;  but  the  harbour  of  Bul- 
garia, Varna,  no  longer  belongs  to  the  mountain  region^ 
and  is  formed  by  the  widened  mouth  of  a  river  indent- 
ing the  uniform  eastern  rim  of  the  Cretaceous  Bulgarian 
tableland. 

The  northern  foreland  of  the  Balkans  widens  to- 
wards the  east,  and  is  traversed  by  the  rivers  Isker,  Vid, 
Osma,  and  Yantra,  which  carry  their  wide  washed-out 
valleys  across  it.  These  valleys,  framed  by  steep  rims, 
change  their  direction  repeatedly,  and  are  rather  barriers 
to  communication  than  roads,  traffic  going  preferably  by 
way  of  the  free  high-flats  between.  The  surface  of  the 
Bulgarian  plain  is  extremely  monotonous,  variety  being 
given  only  by  the  furrows  of  the  valleys,  and  by  the 
rather  surprising  appearance,  to  west  of  the  Yantra,  of 
a  row  of  basaltic  cones,  which  mark  a  hidden  line  of 
fracture.  Except  the  woodland  of  Deli  Orman,  most 
parts  of  the  plain  resemble  the  steppes,  whose  character 
entirely  dominates  the  Dobruja. 

The  deep  "loess"  covering  of  the  Dobruja,  whose 
dust  is  a  plaything  for  the  winds,  veils  a  most  varied 
mountain  formation.  The  rocky  undulations  of  the 
country  are  not  outposts  of  the  Carpathians  or  of  the 
Balkans,  but  present,  in  the  interval  between  them,  a 
noteworthy  example  of  the  blocks  left  behind  by  an  older 
conformation  of  the  earth  of  Europe.  Bare  and  barren 
of  water,  though  amidst  streams,  swamps,  and  lagoons, 
dominated  alternately  by  parching  sunshine  and  by  bitter 
winter  chills,  swept  by  unkindly  winds,  and  yet  not 
healthy,  the  Dobruja  to-day,  as  in  the  days  of  Ovid,  is 
a  cheerless  country,  "  Loca  felici  non  adeunda  viro."     Yet 


ILLYRIAN   CHAINS,  THE    BALKAN,   ETC.       69^ 

how  promising  is  the  position  which   it  occupies  at  the 
mouth  of  the  greatest  river  of  Central  Europe. 

The  Danube  has  been  described  as  the  river  which 
connects  basins.  In  the  region  of  its  lower  reaches  it  con- 
tinues to  have  in  some  degree  the  character  of 
a  trough  bordered  on  every  side  by  higher  T^^  lower 
lying  land.  Between  the  rocky  heights  in 
the  north-west  of  the  Dobruja  and  the  farthest  outposts 
of  the  Carpathians  lies  an  interval  scarcely  fifty  miles 
broad.  From  this  gap,  however,  the  domain  of  the 
Lower  Danube  extends  a  long  side  wing  towards  the  north, 
and  includes  the  districts  of  the  Sereth  and  the  Pruth. 
Unlike  the  bottle-shaped  upper  section  of  the  Danube  or 
the  vast  rectangle  of  the  middle  section,  which  spreads 
between  the  four  corners  of  the  Venediger,  the  Schnee- 
berg  near  Glatz,  the  Czerna  Hora,  and  the  Shar  Dagh, 
the  Lower  Danube  basin  has  a  heart-shaped  form.  The 
kingdom  of  Roumania,  whose  outline  is  drawn  by  the 
Danube  and  the  Pruth,  lies  on  the  map  like  an  eagle  with 
spread  pinions  bearing  down  from  the  Carpathians  to  the 
Black  Sea. 

At  its  emergence  from  the  Iron  Gates,  the  Danube 
lies  but  120  feet  above  the  sea-level;  the  600  miles 
of  its  lower  course  can  have  therefore  but  an  extremely 
slight  fall.  Nevertheless,  thanks  to  its  great  body  of 
water,  further  swollen  as  it  goes  on,  it  runs  not 
sluggishly,  but  with  great  force  between  the  high  bank 
of  the  Bulgarian  plateau  and  the  flat  lowlands  on  the 
Roumanian  shore,  which  in  times  of  flood  it  widely 
overflows.  The  unequal  distribution  of  alluvial  deposits 
at  this  part,  both  by  the  main  stream  and  by  its  tribu- 
taries, has  caused  these  latter  to  be  diverted,  and  swamps 
and  lakes  to  be  formed  along  the  Danube.  Only  at  a 
few  places  does  the  "  loess "  terrace  of  Roumania  come 
close  to  the  river  and  offer  solid  crossing  places ;  these 
are  generally  marked  by  a  pair  of  towns  facing  each 
other  from  opposite  banks.  On  the  most  southerly 
stretch   of   its   course   the   stream   of   the    Danube    often 


70  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

widens  to  great  breadth  or  divides  around  willow-grown 
islands.  Places  occur  in  which  at  low  water  a  navigable 
depth  of  six  and  a  half  feet  can  hardly  be  counted  upon. 
These  difficulties,  however,  cease  as  soon  as  the  largest 
streams  from  the  Balkans  and  Southern  Carpathians  have 
been  included.  But  now  the  river  grows  too  strong  for 
the  ruling  care  of  the  State  in  which  lie  its  lowest 
reaches.  Below  Silistria,  where  the  Danube  passes 
entirely  into  the  kingdom  of  Roumania,  begins  the  plexus 
of  streams  that  surrounds  the  western  and  northern  sides 
of  the  Dobruja.  The  landscape  of  the  northward  flowing 
reaches  down  to  Braila,  the  principal  centre  for  the  ex- 
portation of  Roumanian  grain,  is  dominated  by  the  two 
long  narrow  islands  of  Balta,  which  are  permanently 
intersected  by  lakes  and  dikes,  and  at  high  water  mostly 
covered  by  the  river.  At  Galatz,  between  the  confluences 
of  the  Sereth  and  of  the  Pruth,  the  river  begins  to  turn 
eastward.  From  this  point  the  left  bank  is  bordered 
by  the  lower  ends  of  long  lakes  that  run  far  up  into  the 
land,  due  to  streams  which,  being  barred  from  the  river 
by  banks  of  alluvium,  have  been  driven  back  and  have 
overflowed  their  valleys.  At  sixty  miles'  distance  from  the 
sea  this  amphibious  country  merges  into  the  delta  of  the 
Danube.  The  strongest  stream  is  that  on  the  north,  the 
Kilia,  which  conveys  two-thirds  of  the  waters  of  the 
Danube  north-eastward  along  the  boundary  of  Roumania 
and  Russia  to  the  many  branching  mouths.  The  weaker 
stream  of  St.  George,  running  to  the  south-east,  soon 
divides  a  second  time.  The  principal  part  of  the  traffic 
is  carried  not  by  the  main  right-hand  branch,  but  by  the 
Sulina,  which  runs  through  the  middle  of  the  triangular 
swamp  (900  square  miles  in  extent),  and  retains  but  seven 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  volume  of  water.  This  channel  is 
preferable  as  being  less  winding  and  shorter,  but  espe- 
cially because  less  silt  is  carried  along  it,  and  its  mouth 
therefore  suffers  less  change  of  conformation  than  is  the 
case  with  the  larger  branches,  which  bring  down  great 
masses  of  alluvial  matter.  These  causes  have  led  to  the 
concentration  upon  the  Sulina  of  all  the  measures  taken 


ILLYRIAN   CHAINS,   THE   BALKAN,   ETC.      71 

for  the  development  of  successful  navigation  on  a  large 
scale.  The  minimum  depth,  which  was  naturally  but  seven 
feet,  has  been  increased  to  twenty.  Long  dikes  erected 
at  the  mouth  serve  several  useful  ends ;  they  ensure  the 
removal  of  the  silt  to  deep  water,  where  it  may  sink 
and  do  no  harm  ;  they  prevent  also  the  mouth  of  the 
river  from  becoming  sanded  up  by  the  sea  current  along 
the  beach,  and  they  enclose  the  harbour  into  which  comes 
the  traffic  of  the  regions  served  by  Central  Europe's 
largest  river.  This  traffic,  however,  enlivens  only  the 
main  course  of  the  Lower  Danube  and  not  any  of  its 
tributaries.  Only  in  the  far  future  can  we  look  forward 
to  the  regulation  of  the  Pruth,  which  might  easily  be 
made  a  profitable  water-way,  if  it  were  not  the  boundary 
of  the  Russian  Empire. 


Note  on  Authorities. — Various  researches  into  the  physiography  of 
the  Illyrian  chains  have  been  collected  into  a  monograph  by  J.  Cvijic  : 
Das  Karstphaenomen  {Geographische  Abhandlungen,  edited  by  A.  Penck, 
v.,  1893). 

In  regard  to  the  hydrography  of  Carniola,  Urbas  may  be  consulted 
{Zeitschri/t  des  D.  und  Oe.  Alpenvereins,  viii.,  1877). 

The  formation  and  topography  of  Montenegro  were  not  made  known 
until  considerably  later  by  the  researches  of  E.  Tietze  {Jahrbuch  der 
Kaiserlich-Koniglichen  Reichsanstalt^  xxxiv.,  1884),  and  of  K.  Hassert 
(Supplement  No.  115  to  Petermann's  Mitteilungen). 

The  pioneers  in  scientific  investigation  in  Bosnia  were  E.  v. 
Mojsisovics,  E.  Tietze,  and  A.  Bittner.  A  general  view  of  its  orography 
is  given  by  Lukas  (Wissenschaftliche  Mitteilungen  aus  Bosnien,  viii., 
1901). 

The  earliest  geological  sketch  qf  Servia  was  presented  by  Zujovic 
{Jahrbuch  der  Kaiserlich-Koniglichen  Geologischen  Reichsanstalt,  xxxvi., 
1886). 

The  exploration  of  the  Balkans,  begun  by  Ferdinand  von  Hochstetter, 
was  carried  on  by  F.  Toula,  187  5-1 895  {Denkschri/ten  der  Kaiserlich- 
Koniglichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  math,  naturw.  Klasse,  xliv,, 
Iv.,  Ivii.,  lix.,  Ixiii.).  The  best  authority  upon  the  Lower  Danube  and 
the  Dobruja  is  K.  Peters  Die  Donau  und  ihr  Gebiet  {Denkschri/ten  der 
Kaiserlich-Koniglichen  Akademie.,  xxvii.,  1867). 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   BLOCK  MOUNTAINS  AND  TABLELANDS  OF 
CENTRAL  EUROPE 

If  we   follow  the    bends   in    which    the    chains    of    the 
Alpine  system  curve  from  the  Ligurian  Sea  to  the  Black 

Sea,  we  can  hardly  fail  to  suppose  that  some 
ASTERN      parts    of    these    windings    mark    the    places 

where  the  folds  that  were  pushing  forward 
yielded  to  the  opposing  masses  of  older  rock.  How 
striking  is  the  curve  in  which  the  ridges  of  the  Eastern 
Alps  and  the  Western  Carpathians  swing  round  the 
southern  and  eastern  rim  of  the  old  Bohemian  group  ! 
How  the  Jura  curls  round  the  southern  border  of  the 
Black  Forest ! 

Similarly,  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  Carpathians  lie  two 
blocks  of  old  country  whose  horizontal  strata  the  waves  of 
the  Alpine  fold  did  not  succeed  in  penetrating.  One  of 
these,  the  plain  of  Podolia,  is  an  integral  part  of  the  old 
Russian  tableland,  a  piece  of  Eastern  Europe.  The  par- 
tition of  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  however,  has  brought 
the  boundary  of  the  Empire  of  Austria  up  on  to  this 
plain.  South  of  the  railway  from  Lemberg  to  Brody,  its 
northern  rim  rises  above  the  sources  of  the  Bug,  forming 
the  southern  border  of  the  Vistula  basin.  From  this 
edge  the  streams,  including  the  boundary  river  Zbruz, 
run  southward,  cutting  their  channels  deeper  and  deeper, 
until  they  enter  the  chief  river  of  Eastern  Galicia,  the 
Dniester.  A  long  stretch  of  the  south-easterly  course  of  this 
marks  the  south-western  boundary  of  the  Podolian  table. 
It  is  not  until  beyond  Halicz,  the  place  from  which  all 
Galicia  took  its  name,  that  the  Dniester  itself  enters  the 
plateau.     The  meanderings  which  it  began  by  describing 


BLOCK   MOUNTAINS   AND   TABLELANDS      73 

upon  the  surface  have  been  bitten  deeper  and  deeper  into 
the  strata  ;  on  the  steep  faces  of  its  valley — sometimes 
as  much  as  500  feet  high — their  sequence  lies  exposed  ; 
at  the  top  "  loess,"  accumulating  in  the  storms  of  the 
bare  steppe  ;  then  marine  deposits  from  the  Tertiary  and 
Cretaceous  periods  ;  and  lowest  of  all,  the  old  red  sand- 
stone. Under  the  valley-brinks  cluster  well-sheltered 
towns  and  villages,  but  upon  the  table  itself  (1000  to 
1300  feet  high)  the  steppes  extend  without  a  tree,  and 
generally  without  the  break  of  any  settlement ;  the 
greater  part  has  now,  however,  been  brought  under  the 
plough  and  converted  into  waving  cornfields. 

As  the  Upper  Dniester,  above  its  entrance  into  the 
plateau,  and  then  the  broad  valley  of  the  Pruth  divide  the 
Carpathians  of  Eastern  Galicia  from  the  Podolian  table,  so 
in  the  west  the  Vistula  divides  from  the  Beskid  mountains 
and  their  flat  foreland  the  ancient  upland  emerging 
from  under  the  broad  undulations  of  Poland  and  Upper 
Silesia.  Between  Sandomirz  and  Kielce,  old  slates, 
quartzites,  and  sandstones  lift  their  soft  ridges  from  the 
Cretaceous  formation  prevailing  in  the  south-western 
part  of  Poland.  These  are  but  the  uppermost  and  most 
recent  of  the  horizontally  laid  strata  composing  the  table 
of  Poland  and  Upper  Silesia.  The  limit  of  the  limestone 
deposits  of  the  Polish  Jura  is  an  escarpment  formed  by 
denudation,  and  appears  as  a  cliff  crowned  by  the 
monastery  of  Czenstochow,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff 
runs  the  Upper  Warta.  Westward,  Triassic  formations 
prevail  throughout  the  northern  half  of  Upper  Silesia. 
In  them  also  the  Hmestones  form  a  steep  slope  towards 
the  valley  of  the  Oder,  and  gain  impressiveness  from 
the  position  of  the  little  Annaberg,  which  is  the  most 
easterly  basaltic  summit  in  Germany.  This  edge,  how- 
ever, does  not  run  from  the  south-east  to  the  north- 
west like  that  of  the  Jura,  but  from  east  to  west ;  the 
great  coal-basin  of  Upper  Silesia  lies  at  its  southern  foot. 
The  mighty  coal  measures,  in  some  places  exposed,  in 
others  covered  by  a  slight  mantle  of  newer  deposits, 
present  themselves  in  the  most  favourable  conditions  for 


74  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

exploitation.  Only  on  the  south-west  of  the  basin,  at 
the  border  of  the  Sudetic  mountains,  are  the  strata  raised 
on  end  or  overturned.  At  this  point  begin  the  mountains 
of  Middle  Germany. 

In  the  chart  of  Central  European  waters,  hardly  any 
phenomenon    is    more    remarkable     than    the     irregular 
course  followed  by  the  northern  boundary 
Bohemia  and       ^f  ^j^g   Danube    basm.       The    sources    of 
Uplands  *^^  Naab  and  of  the  March    lie  north  of 

the  fiftieth  degree  of  latitude  ;  the  districts 
of  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  Moravia,  through  which 
they  flow,  slope  southward  towards  Ratisbon  and  Vienna. 
Between  these  two  provinces,  however,  which  belong  to 
the  Danube  basin,  lies  a  broad  uneven  mass  of  land^ 
the  waters  of  which  run  northward  from  latitude  48^°, 
and  are  collected  in  one  principal  channel,  that  of  the 
Moldau,  which  follows  the  line  of  the  meridian.  This 
land  is  the  old  Bohemian  block,  in  the  midst  of  which 
are  found  oceanic  formations  of  very  great  antiquity, 
the  oldest  known  in  Europe,  dating  from  a  period  in 
which  this  region  was  covered  by  a  deep  sea  with 
blind  animals.  The  coal-beds  of  Pilsen  bear  witness 
to  a  later  continental  period,  for  they  were  formed  in 
an  inland  lake.  The  whole  country  round  became 
one  of  the  old  cores  of  our  continent  that  have  main- 
tained their  place  through  countless  ages.  Only  the  gentle 
slopes  in  the  northern  part  of  the  block  have  in  later 
epochs  been  overflowed  sometimes  by  a  sea  coming  in 
from  the  north.  The  freestone  which  characterises 
extensive  tracts  of  North  and  North-Eastern  Bohemia  is  a 
formation  belonging  to  the  shores  of  that  sea,  which  in 
the  Cretaceous  period  covered  not  only  large  parts  of 
North  Germany,  but  also  this  portion  of  old  Bohemia. 
In  those  days  Bohemia  was  not  a  country  enclosed  on  the 
north.  Even  after  the  beginning  of  the  Tertiary  period,  the 
lakes  and  swamps  in  which  the  Bohemian  lignites  were 
formed  extended  from  the  interior  to  stretches  of  country 
now   belonging  to  the  surface  of  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge. 


BLOCK   MOUNTAINS   AND   TABLELANDS      75 

The  full  development  of  the  great  differences  in  height 
between  the  mountainous  northern  border  and  the  low- 
lying  interior  of  Bohemia  was  effected  only  in  the  middle 
and  later  Tertiary  epochs.  On  the  southern  side  of  the 
Sudetic  mountains,  geologists  have  discovered  great  lines 
of  fracture,  clefts  of  which  the  southern  lip  has  sunk  to  a 
lower  position.  But  the  faults  which  cut  off  the  steep 
southern  border  of  the  Erzgebirge  from  the  mountains  of 
Karlsbad  cause  far  more  striking  effects  in  the  landscape. 
Along  these  fractures,  by  which  the  courses  of  the  Eger 
and  the  Biela  were  determined,  occur  many  hot  springs 
and  carbonic  acid  springs,  while  clusters  of  slender  pillars 
and  domed  summits  bear  witness  to  the  volcanic  activity, 
for  which  a  path  was  opened  in  the  Tertiary  period  by 
deep-reaching  fissures.  This  zone  of  bold  mountains 
with  a  volcanic  origin  continues  north-eastward  through 
Lusatia  to  Lower  Silesia,  and  marks  the  limit  of  the 
Sudetic  mountains  near  Zittau.  The  space,  however,  be- 
tween them  and  the  Erzgebirge  is  not  left  open  ;  in  the 
interval  lie  the  sandstone  mountains,  into  which  the  Elbe 
has  cut  the  gorge  that  serves  as  an  outflow  channel  for  all 
the  rivers  of  Bohemia. 

The  rivers  complete  their  union  in  the  fruitful  basin  of 
Melnik  and  Leitmeritz,  where  they  were  at  one  time 
gathered  into  a  great  lake.  The  principal  river  is 
certainly  the  Moldau  ;  the  Elbe  brings  only  one-third, 
while  the  Moldau  brings  one-half  of  the  whole  volume 
of  water  that  passes  from  Bohemia  to  Saxony.  The 
large  boats  which  carry  the  Bohemian  lignites  and  garden 
produce  to  North  Germany  begin  their  course  at  Leit- 
meritz ;  the  future  may  see  Prague  become  the  southern 
trading  point  of  the  Elbe  district,  and  perhaps  even  a 
great  system  of  canals  carrying  trade  from  the  Moldau 
across  to  the  Danube  by  way  of  Budweis  and  Linz.  A 
wide  passage-way  stands  invitingly  open  between  the 
broad  and  ancient  ridges  at  the  south-eastern  end  of 
the  Bohemian  Forest. 

These  latter  mountains,  which  form  the  Bavarian  face 
of  the  old  forest  fastness  of  Bohemia,  are  cut  through  to 


76  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  north  of  their  centre  by  the  often-disputed  Gate  of 
Furth.  This  pass  lies  barely  1500  feet  high,  and  its 
direction  is  exactly  that  of  the  line  between  Ratisbon  and 
Prague.  As  the  towns  of  Eger  and  Budweis  grew  up  on 
the  outskirts  of  the  Bohemian  Forest  along  roads  that  pass 
round  its  mountains,  so  Pilsen  grew  up  at  this  passage- 
way of  nations.  Southward  of  it  lie  the  broadest  and 
highest  portions  of  the  chain,  long  ridges  the  summits  of 
which  are  rounded  and  seldom  rocky,  the  highest  of  them, 
like  the  Arber  (4780  feet),  rising  above  the  tree-line  and 
having  little  dark  tarns  lying  in  rocky  nooks  upon  their 
slopes.  Beyond,  to  the  south,  lies  the  Bavarian  Forest, 
lifting  its  steep  summits  above  the  Danube  valley  and 
the  foreland  of  the  Alps. 

At  the  north-west  corner  of  Bohemia  stands  the 
Fichtel  Gebirge,  a  modest  range  of  wooded  heights 
easily  encircled  by  the  roads  from  Eger  into  the  Upper 
Palatinate  and  into  the  Vogtland. 

Very  different  from  the  radial  river  system  of  the 
Fichtel  Gebirge,  and  very  different  too  from  the  longi- 
tudinal valleys  between  the  broad  ridges  of  the  Bohemian 
Forest,  is  the  disposition  of  watercourses  in  the  Saxon 
Erzgebirge.  The  Eger,  and  farther  east,  the  Biele, 
running  parallel  to  the  mountains  on  their  steep  southern 
border,  collect  the  streams  which  in  narrow  valley  chinks 
come  down  the  majestic  mountain-side.  On  the  north, 
however,  where  the  high  rim  of  the  block  softens  to 
rounded  heads,  the  courses  eroded  by  the  rivers  of 
Saxony  down  the  gentle  undulating  slope  lie  at  first  in 
wide  hollows,  then  in  deep,  narrow  gorges  spanned  by 
bold  railway  bridges,  and  lastly,  as  they  approach  the 
lowlands,  in  open  dales  again.  The  tilted  plain  which 
determines  their  direction  is  an  abraded  surface,  a 
wreck  produced  by  destructive  atmospheric  influences, 
which  have  left  nothing  remaining  but  the  foundation 
of  an  old  folded  range  that  ran  to  the  north-east. 
Between  the  belts  of  primitive  rock  lie  basins  of  sedi- 
ment, important  because  they  contain  thick  seams  of 
coal.      In   former   times,    the    primitive  rocks  with   their 


&X11MAI 


Scale  -  1  ■■  6,OUaOOO 
F.ngU»h  MliBt 


ThKiAnhar^  G«o^atpluc«l  Iii«tiiiit« 


OROGRAPHICAL 


J  OBaxtkolaaMW. 


BLOCK   MOUNTAINS   AND   TABLELANDS      77 

veins  of  ore,  were  the  basis  upon  which  rested  the 
life  of  the  population.  Silver-mining  peopled  the  moun- 
tains, and  brought  into  existence,  among  its  loftiest 
summits,  the  highest  towns  of  the  continent.  These  have 
survived  the  exhaustion  of  their  vital  nerve,  and  eke  out  a 
scanty  existence  by  domestic  industries.  The  strongest 
pulse  of  life  now  beats  around  the  coal-beds  of  Zwickau 
and  Chemnitz.  The  position  of  industrial  towns,  rather 
than  the  uniform  contour  of  the  country,  has  determined 
the  situation  and  the  importance  of  the  many  ways  that 
lead  from  Saxony  to  Bohemia. 

The  inappropriate  name  of  "  Saxon  Switzerland "  is 
popularly  applied  to  the  north-western  portion  of  a  sand- 
stone mass  which  occupies  a  great  part  of  Northern 
Bohemia,  is  intersected  by  the  Elbe,  and  pushes  forward 
its  eastern  outposts  between  the  primitive  rocks  of  the 
county  of  Glatz  and  also  across  the  border  of  Moravia. 
The  middle  part  of  this  horizontally  laid  sandstone  table 
between  the  Iser  and  the  Elbe,  clearly  displays  the  simple 
plateau  formation,  but  even  here  the  waters  intersecting 
the  strata  flow  between  banks  of  sandstone  that  are 
abrupt  and  sometimes  very  high.  The  disintegrating 
action  of  water  has  operated  most  strongly,  however, 
upon  the  circumference  of  the  table,  as  in  the  "  Saxon 
Switzerland  "  and  the  celebrated  rocky  scenes  of  Aders- 
bach  and  Wekelsdorf  on  the  border  of  Silesia  ;  while  in 
Silesia  itself,  the  Heuscheuer  furnishes  a  similar  example 
of  a  freestone  block  which  has  undergone  profound 
disintegration. 

Scenes  of  great  beauty  are  presented  where  a  mighty 
river  flows  through  a  lane  of  pale  proud  rock ;  where 
wild  rocky  walls  give  place  to  smiling  glades  along  a 
friendly  river-bank ;  or  where,  high  on  the  summit  of  the 
Konigstein,  appear  the  walls  of  a  virgin  fortress,  with  a 
peaceful  little  township  sunning  itself  on  the  shore  below. 
The  variety  of  the  mountain  forms  is  greatly  increased, 
however,  by  the  occurrence  of  volcanic  rocks,  slim  pillars 
of  basalt  and  phonolite,  which  bring  into  the  landscape 
not  only  other  lines  but  also  other  colours,  whether  it  be 


78  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  gloomy  darkness  of  their  naked  stone,  or  the  cheerful 
woodlands  glowing  in  the  fertile  mould  of  their  detritus. 
In  particular,  the  borderland  of  Lusatia  towards  Bohemia 
gains  from  the  presence  of  such  bold  intruders  an  unusual 
wealth  and  variety  of  forms. 

Above  the  softly  undulating  profile  of  the  broad  Iser 
chain,  with  its  high,  marshy,  dividing  valleys,  rises  to  east- 
ward the  lofty  ridge  of  the  Riesen  Gebirge,  with  summits 
crowned  by  broken  rocks.  Around  the  south  side  of  its 
granitic  centre  lies  a  mantle  of  old  slates,  divided  through 
ten  miles  of  their  extent  by  the  longitudinal  valley  in  which 
the  sources  of  the  Elbe  gather.  Micaschists  compose  the 
pyramid  of  the  Schneekoppe  (5260  feet  high),  which  rests 
upon  a  granite  base. 

On  the  east  the  primitive  rocks  of  the  Riesen  Gebirge 
disappear  beneath  the  ridges  of  the  Waldenburg  coal  basin, 
which  is  dominated  by  steep  porphyritic  mountains.  At 
the  opening  at  Landeshut  (1770  feet),  which  is  the  most 
direct  link  between  Breslau  and  Prague,  the  coal 
measures  of  this  basin  pass  over  into  Bohemia.  Not 
until  they  reach  the  foot  of  the  Heuscheuer  Gebirge  do 
they  disappear  beneath  the  freestone  formation,  which 
extending  from  Bohemia  into  Silesia,  defines,  with  the 
rocks  of  Adersbach,  the  high  central  pan  of  the  Walden- 
burg basin.  From  this  a  saddle  leads  over  towards  the 
south-east  into  the  deep  hollow  of  Glatz,  which  is  so  shut 
in  by  mighty  masses  of  primitive  rock  that  its  waters,  col- 
lected by  the  Neisse,  are  only  able  to  escape  north- 
wards to  the  Silesian  plain  through  a  deeply  cut  gorge. 
While,  like  the  Riesen  Gebirge,  the  primitive  ridges  on 
the  north  and  south-west  of  the  county  of  Glatz  strike 
towards  the  south-east,  the  gneiss  and  old  schists  of  the 
Schneeberg  beyond  Glatz,  where  the  basins  of  the 
Baltic,  the  North,  and  the  Black  Seas  meet,  run  towards 
the  south-west.  A  south-westerly  grain  also  prevails 
among  the  rocks  of  the  Altvater  Gebirge  and  the  adjoin- 
ing plateau  on  the  border  of  Moravia,  which  is  intersected 
by  remote  meandering  valleys.  The  transition  to  the 
eastern    limit   of   Bohemia,   which   is   the    lowest   of   her 


BLOCK   MOUNTAINS   AND  TABLELANDS      79 

borders,  is  thus  prepared  in  the  eastern  wing  of  the 
Sudetic  mountains.  Between  the  granitic  heights  He  easy 
openings  for  traffic  between  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  The 
basin  of  the  March  interposes  an  independent  formation, 
resembhng  the  foreland  of  the  Alps,  between  the  ancient 
masses  of  Central  Germany  and  the  folded  ranges  in 
southern  Central  Europe.  The  Moravian  Gate  between 
the  Sudetic  mountains  and  the  Carpathians  (hardly  1000 
feet  high)  is  the  lowest  of  the  passages  between  the 
Danube  and  the  Silesian  plain,  from  which  islands  of  old 
rock  still  rise  to  considerable  heights. 

Opposite  to  the  Bohemian  group  stand  the  mountains 
of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Rhine,  independent  masses  of  very 
old  rock.      If  with  the   latter  we  include 
not  only  the  closely  connected  Ardennes,       "^  Table- 
but   also    the   structurally   related    Hartz     tral  and  South 
Mountains,  lying  like  a  severed  island  at     Germany— 
some  distance,  we  shall  at  once  perceive     Thuringia, 
the  bounds  of  the  triangular  territory  of     "^^^e,  Fran- 

CONIA    AND 

Central  and  South  -  Western  Germany,  swabi'a. 
whose  features  present  not  a  few  points 
of  structural  and  correlated  unity.  The  Saale  and  the 
Upper  Weser,  the  Main,  and  the  Neckar,  main  water- 
courses around  which  lie  the  habitations  of  four  German 
tribes,  all  flow  through  winding  valleys  cut  into  table- 
lands of  sedimentary  rock.  These  tablelands  are  closely 
connected,  for  their  continuity  is  only  interrupted  by 
the  promontory  of  older  mountains  which  runs,  under 
the  names  of  the  Franconian  and  the  Thuringian  Forests, 
north-westward  from  the  Fichtel  Gebirge  to  Eisenach. 
This  promontory  is  a  long,  narrow  range,  a  strip  of  raised 
land,  between  depressions  on  either  side.  The  Triassic 
deposits  which  once  clothed  its  surface  have  been  worn 
away  and  the  older  foundations  laid  bare. 

The  country  overlooked  by  these  heights  presents, 
from  the  Thuringian  Forest  to  the  Hartz  Mountains,  the 
outward  features  of  a  plateau  ;  to  the  geologist  it  is  a 
trough  filled  by  the  three  members  of  the  Triassic  group. 


8o  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

concentrically  disposed  in  close  conjunction  and  inter- 
sected by  many  lines  of  fracture.  The  wooded  outer 
border  is  formed  by  variegated  sandstone  ;  the  next  belt 
contains  a  table  of  shell  limestone,  ill  watered,  but  occu- 
pied by  agriculture  ;  the  centre,  which  is  the  garden 
country  of  Erfurt,  is  a  shallow  basin  of  red  marls.  Into 
the  strata  of  these  rocks  the  Saale  and  its  tributaries 
cut  their  valleys.  Their  unsteady  direction  contrasts 
strangely  with  the  straightness  of  a  valley  in  the  northern 
neighbourhood.  The  valley  of  the  Leine  at  Gcittingen, 
which  runs  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian,  marks  a 
long  rift  in  the  most  northerly  of  these  great  slabs  of 
Triassic  sandstone  which,  under  varying  names,  prevail 
throughout  the  district  of  the  Upper  Weser  from  the 
Soiling  to  the  Rhon,  and  even  farther  to  the  Spessart.  The 
Hessian  mountain  district,  however,  appears  clearly  differ- 
entiated from  the  wider  spread  area  of  the  Triassic  sand- 
stone by  the  unusual  development  of  recent  volcanic 
rocks.  Germany  nowhere  possesses  any  other  accumu- 
lation of  basalt  comparable  with  the  fiat  cone  of  the 
Vogelsberg,  which  rises  in  long  slopes  from  a  base 
thirty  miles  in  diameter.  In  the  High  Rhon  also  a  base 
of  Triassic  sandstone  is  crowned  by  a  ridge  of  basalt  ; 
the  poor,  treeless  mountains  here  divide  Hesse  and 
Franconia. 

If,  taking  the  direction  opposed  to  the  flow  of  the 
water,  we  follow  up  the  Main  from  Aschaffenburg,  or  the 
Neckar  from  Heidelberg,  and  approach  the  region  of  their 
sources,  the  varying  nature  of  the  river  bank  will  show  us 
the  geological  formations  of  Franconia  and  Swabia  in 
regular  succession  from  the  wooded  Triassic  sandstone 
mountains  of  the  Spessart  and  the  Odenwald,  through 
the  fertile  plains  and  the  sloping  vineyards  of  the  shell 
limestone,  to  the  gentle  hills  of  red  marl.  Ultimately 
we  stand  in  front  of  the  escarpment  of  the  Jurassic 
limestone. 

The  Jura  chain,  from  the  Falls  of  the  Rhine  to  the 
junction  of  the  sources  of  the  Main,  is  the  largest  lime- 
stone range  of  inner  Germany.      While  it  slopes  gently 


€£KTBAL    SI 


"Vhf  £&ibuT^  Geogi'flphical  lujtilQte 


.OPX  -  GEOLOGICAL 


J  G  Ba»A  bI  rm»w. 


BLOCK   MOUNTAINS  AND   TABLELANDS     8i 

towards  the  Naab  and  Danube,  it  breaks  off  sharply  with  a 
marked  escarpment  on  the  inner  side  of  its  curve,  where 
appear  the  older  deposits.  The  whole  chain  forms  two 
wings,  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Ries  at  Nord- 
lingen,  a  depression  which  has  volcanic  rock  emerging 
from  its  lines  of  fracture,  and  the  Wornitz  flowing  through 
it.  Here  the  road  from  Augsburg  to  Nuremberg  finds  an 
easy  passage  open  from  the  Wornitz  to  the  Regnitz,  which 
latter  river  flows  northward  through  a  sandy  plain  full  of 
fir  woods.  It  reaches  the  Main  among  the  fruitful  gardens 
and  below  the  sloping  hop  plantations  of  Bamberg. 

Eastward  of  this  busy  valley-road  rises  the  Franconian 
Jura,  the  northern  part  of  which,  though  only  of  moderate 
height,  offers  to  lovers  of  the  picturesque  curious  caverns 
and  beautiful  formations.  At  the  point  where  the  curve 
of  the  Franconian  Jura  turns  from  the  south  towards 
the  south-west  the  mountains  drop  to  a  pass  1380  feet 
high,  which  is  crossed  by  the  Ludovic  Canal,  connecting 
the  Regnitz  and  the  Altmiihl,  Bamberg  and  Kelheim.  At 
the  end  of  this  connection  the  Danube  lies  370  feet  higher 
than  the  Main.  The  difference  of  height  is  even  more 
marked  in  the  Swabian  Jura,  where  Ulm  and  Sigmaringen 
on  the  Danube  lie  800  feet  above  the  corresponding  cities 
of  the  Neckar,  although  the  highest  crest  of  the  mountain 
is  from  13  to  19  miles  away  from  the  Danube,  and  scarcely 
half  so  far  from  the  valley  of  the  Neckar.  The  steep 
northern  face  is  cleft  by  deep  ravines  between  which 
precipitous  tables  of  rock,  separated  from  the  main  body 
of  the  mountain,  rise  in  peninsulas  and  even  islands,  fit 
for  the  site  of  medieval  castles. 

In  addition  to  the  striking  formations  usually  charac- 
teristic of  limestone  mountains,  the  caverns,  hidden  waters 
and  amazingly  abundant  springs,  the  Swabian  Jura  has 
many  outbreaks  of  volcanic  rock,  which  in  some  places  have 
only  become  exposed  through  the  action  of  denudation, 
but  now,  on  account  of  their  hardness,  overtop  the  hills 
of  the  neighbourhood.  The  real  glories  of  the  landscape, 
however,  are  the  Tertiary  volcanoes  in  the  area  of  depres- 
sion at  Hegau,  to  the  north-west  of  the  Lake  of  Constance; 


82  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  Hohentwiel,  upon  whose  summit  the  glaciers  of  the 
Alps  unloaded  their  stony  freight,  has  even  more  wonder- 
ful tales  to  tell  to  the  student  of  nature  than  to  the  poet 
by  whom  its  historic  memories  are  awakened  to  new  and 
glorified  life. 

The  low  plain  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  from  Basle  to 
Mainz,  is  a  typical  example  of  a  long-drawn  rift  valley. 
The  Mountains  Beneath  it  lie  buried  the  central  heights  of 
AND  Lowland  a  mountain  range.  The  Vosges  and  the 
OF  THE  Upper  Black  Forest  are  remnants  of  this  range, 
■^"'^^-  much  worn  away  by  later  atmospheric  ac- 

tion, and  their  steep  slopes  towards  the  depression,  as  well 
as  their  gentler  outer  slopes,  show  distinct  traces,  both  in 
contour  and  internal  framework,  of  their  original  connec- 
tion. In  comparing  these  two  mountain  sections,  however, 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  eastern  wing  always  lies 
rather  more  to  the  north,  because  the  grain  of  the  old 
mountains,  which  were  cut  in  two  by  the  trench  of  the 
Upper  Rhine  valley,  ran  north-eastward. 

Easy  roads  go  round  both  groups  of  mountains  on 
the  south  ;  the  Rhine  valley  above  Basle  makes  an  opening 
through  the  Jura,  while  to  the  west  lies  a  widely  open  pass 
1 150  feet  high,  the  Burgundy  Gate — the  "troupe  de 
Belfort " — over  which  canal-boats  float  from  the  Rhine  to 
the  Doubs  and  the  Rhone.  On  the  immediate  borders 
of  these  easily  passable  valleys  both  the  massifs  lift 
their  loftiest  summits,  peaks  of  gneiss  and  granite  from 
4500  to  4900  feet  high.  But  even  south  of  the  latitude  of 
Strassburg  the  primitive  rocks  disappear  beneath  a  bed  of 
variegated  sandstone,  which  creeping  up  the  slopes  of  either 
range,  from  Lorraine  and  from  Swabia,  gradually  covers 
them  to  the  summit,  imparting  to  the  northern  parts  of 
both  groups  forms  that  are  flatter,  and  along  the  edges  of 
valleys  more  abrupt. 

To  the  north  of  the  Vosges  is  the  Pass  of  Saverne, 
1325  feet  high,  beneath  which  the  Rhine  and  Marne 
Canal  is  carried  through  a  tunnel.  To  this  corresponds, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  a  little  more  to  the  north, 


BLOCK   MOUNTAINS   AND  TABLELANDS     83 

the  low  hilly  country  which  offers  to  the  traffic  between 
Karlsruhe  and  Swabia  the  choice  of  so  many  roads.  As 
might  be  expected  the  Neckar  seeks  a  passage  to  the 
Rhine  across  this  hill  country. 

In  the  Odenwald  the  mountains  of  the  Upper  Rhine 
once  more  rise  to  considerable  altitudes.  The  fractured 
western  slope,  adorned  by  the  vineyards  and  fruit  gardens 
of  the  "  Bergstrasse,"  cuts  through  a  group  of  old  granites, 
but  the  eastern  part  of  the  range  is  formed  by  the  flat  ridges 
of  the  sandstone,  on  which,  like  a  button  on  a  cap,  is  set  the 
basaltic  top  of  the  Katzenbuckel.  In  the  Bavarian  Palatin- 
ate, opposite  to  the  Odenwald,  the  Hardt  mountains  form 
the  last  link  of  the  western  mountains  of  the  Upper 
Rhine.  These,  as  their  name  shows,  and  as  would  be 
expected  from  the  sandstone  composition  of  their  heights, 
are  a  woodland  of  great  extent,  bordered  along  the  eastern 
slopes  by  splendid  vineyards.  The  north-western  boundary 
of  this  mountain  country  is  formed  by  the  great  main  road 
of  the  Palatinate  from  Kaiserslautern  to  Zweibriicken,  along 
which  so  many  armies  have  passed  between  Mainz  and 
Metz. 

The  remarkable  symmetry  of  the  mountains  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  Upper  Rhine  extends  to  their  forelands. 
Lorraine,  like  Swabia,  is  a  graduated  terraced  district,  the 
outlines  of  which  are  marked  by  the  edges  of  formations 
following  in  regular  succession  one  on  another.  Different 
reaches  of  the  northward  rivers  Saar,  Nied,  and  Moselle 
follow  the  scarps  of  the  various  deposits,  none  of  which, 
however,  assumes  so  conspicuous  an  importance  in  the 
landscape  as  does  the  Swabian  Jura.  The  hills  of  Metz 
to  the  right  and  left  of  the  Moselle  belong  to  two  different 
steps  in  the  successive  formations  ;  the  table  mountains  of 
the  left  bank,  which  carry  the  higher  forts,  mark  the  escarp- 
ment of  the  middle  stage  of  the  Jura.  Their  strata  are  the 
same  as  those  which  contain  the  rich  iron  ore  of  Lorraine 
and  Luxemburg. 

Thanks  to  its  position,  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
enclosed,  and  to  the  slight  elevation  above  the  sea  (be- 
tween Basle  and  Mainz  from  900  feet  to   260   feet),  the 

7 


84  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

low  plain  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  twenty  miles  wide  and 
nearly  two  hundred  miles  long,  is  the  warmest  and  most 
cheerful  valley  in  Germany.  The  highest  degree  of  fertility 
is  exhibited  by  the  loess  deposits,  with  their  covering  of 
orchards  and  vineyards,  clothing  the  hills  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains. 

The  oldest  Rhine  deposits  of  rubble,  which  not  far 
from  Bingen  lie  500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river, 
are  to  be  found  at  Mainz  only,  far  below  the  plane  of 
the  valley's  surface,  and  possibly  below  the  level  of  the 
sea.  In  spite  of  having  suffered  this  great  tilt  of  its 
original  bed,  the  Rhine  has  maintained  its  place.  The 
crisis  in  the  river's  history  has,  however,  left  its  imperish- 
able marks  in  the  highly  varied  character  of  the  banks,  in 
the  deep  gorge  below  Bingen,  and  the  flat  surface  of  the 
thick  bed  of  gravels  above  that  place  ;  and  the  rapids  of 
Bingen  remain  its  eloquent  memorial.  The  fall  of  the 
Rhine,  which  here  suddenly  increases  to  ten  feet  in  a  mile, 
is  very  slight  between  Mainz  and  Bingen,  only  0.8  inches 
in  a  mile.  Between  the  vine-clad  slopes  of  the  Rheingau 
the  river  flows  broad  (700  to  800  yards)  and  majestic, 
curving  but  little  and  occasionally  divided  by  long  fish- 
shaped  islands.  The  gentlest  slope,  however,  of  its  bed 
lies  above  Mainz.  At  Oppenheim  ends  a  reach  of  the 
Upper  Rhine  which  exhibited,  before  the  regulating  works 
of  the  present  century,  a  tangle  of  wide  and  ever-changing 
curves,  that  now  approached  the  right  and  now  the  left 
bank  of  the  wide  valley. 

The  course  of  the  river  in  its  Baden  reach  has  been 
shortened  by  fifty  miles — that  is  to  say,  by  23  per  cent, 
of  its  former  length — and  its  waters  have  been,  as  far 
as  possible,  collected  into  one  channel  firmly  walled  in 
by  dikes,  while  the  mere  increase  in  the  fall  has  enabled 
this  channel  to  cut  itself  deeper  into  the  bed  of  the 
valley.  Navigation  has  thereby  been  the  gainer.  Up  to 
Mannheim  there  is  now  an  assured  depth  of  6  feet  5 
inches,  and  up  to  Strassburg  of  5  feet.  The  Main  is 
canalised  upward  as  far  as  Frankfurt,  and  navigable 
for  ships  of   1000   tons.     Mannheim  and  Frankfurt   are 


BLOCK   MOUNTAINS   AND  TABLELANDS      85 

thus  centres  of  the  great  inland  water  traffic  of  South 
Germany. 

If   we   go   down   the   Rhine  from    Bingen,   the    boat, 
after  gliding  beneath    the    sunny   slopes    of    Riidesheim, 
enters  an  overshadowed  rocky  ravine,  which 
at  the  rock  of  the  Lorelei  narrows  to   1 80      tains  of  the 
yards,  but  at  the  same  time  compels  the      Lower 
river   to  deepen  its  bed  to   90  feet.     The      Rhine 
waters   are    enclosed   between   steep   walls      ^^^  "^"^ 
and  divided  by   rocky   crags   and   islands.         Rdennes. 
Castles  stand  in  the  midst  of  the  stream  or  high  above 
it  on  projecting  rocks.     Picturesque  spots  nestle  in  nooks 
of  the  bank,  or  form  a  belt  along  its  narrow  border.     At 
times  the  valley  opens  to  cheerful  basins.     That  of  Cob- 
lentz  receives  the  junctions  of  the  Lahn  and  the  Moselle, 
which  emerge  from  narrow  winding  valleys.     Once  more, 
however,  the    Rhine  valley  closes   in   and   narrows.       It 
is  not  until  the  Sieben-Gebirge,  near  Bonn,  that  the  hills 
begin   to    recede   and  the   bay  of  the  Cologne    lowland 
opens.     The  encroachment  of  this  diminishes  the  breadth 
of  the  mountains  between  Bingen  and  Bonn  to  sixty  miles  ; 
between  Wiesbaden   and  Dortmund,  and  between   Saar- 
briicken  and  Liege,  the  breadth  is  twice  as  great. 

Thick  population  and  noisy  industrial  life  fills  the 
valleys  of  the  Saar,  Ruhr,  Meuse,  and  Sambre,  which  cut 
into  the  coalfields.  In  sharp  contrast  with  the  active  life 
reigning  here,  as  well  as  amid  the  busy  traffic  of  the 
Rhine  Valley  and  the  towns  and  gardens  along  the  Main, 
is  the  silence  of  the  sparsely  peopled  highland  that 
stretches  between  the  valleys.  Although  their  elevation 
on  either  side  of  the  Rhine  is  on  an  average  less  than  2000 
feet,  the  undulating  high-plains  of  Eifel  and  Westerwald  are 
subject  to  a  raw  and  rainy  climate.  The  Eifel  and  Wester- 
wald would  be  the  most  monotonous  uplands  of  Germany, 
if  it  were  not  for  the  peculiar  charm  imparted  to  them  by 
volcanic  forms.  The  Eifel  is  the  only  district  of  Germany 
in  which  volcanoes  exist  similar  to  those  of  Auvergne, 
although  much  smaller.    They  are  of  so  recent  a  date  that 


86  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  structure  of  their  craters  and  the  course  of  their 
lava  streams  remain  in  good  preservation  and  are  easy 
of  study.  Essentially  different  from  the  craters  are  the 
funnels  of  explosion,  whose  hollows  are  filled  by  round 
lakes — the  Maars.  The  most  considerable  of  these,  the 
Lake  of  Laach,  is  a  very  gem  of  beauty,  but  it  needs  to  be 
sought  out.  The  trachytic  peaks  of  the  Sieben-Gebirge, 
on  the  contrary,  which  adorn  the  horizon  of  Bonn,  stand 
close  to  the  Rhine.^ 

The  Ardennes  are  the  immediate  continuation  of  the 
Lower  Rhenish  mountains.  The  character  of  the  landscape, 
however,  softens  towards  the  west.  Amid  diminishing 
heights  the  valley  in  which  the  Meuse  cuts  across  the 
highland  between  Mezieres  and  Namur,  is  in  its  confor- 
mation a  complete  but  tamer  counterpart  of  the  Rhine 
valley.  As  the  elevation  of  the  wooded  range  grows 
smaller,  so  also  does  its  breadth.  Only  on  its  northern 
edge,  marked  approximately  by  the  Meuse  and  Sambre 
line  through  Liege,  Namur,  and  Charleroi,  and  farther  on 
by  the  valley  of  Hainault,  does  the  range  follow  the  south- 
western direction  conspicuous  in  its  German  portion.  Its 
southern  border,  the  outline  of  which  is  plainly  trace- 
able along  the  reach  of  the  Meuse  between  Sedan  and 
Mezieres,  and  along  the  continuation  of  this  line  on  either 
hand  through  the  valleys  of  the  Chiers  and  the  Sor- 
monne,  turns  so  distinctly  towards  the  north-west  that 
the  two  borders  plainly  converge  upon  Valenciennes.  In 
this  direction  the  Ardennes  run  out  to  a  point.  Their 
southern  border  has  been  secured  by  France,  and  along 
the  Meuse  a  tongue  of  French  territory  penetrates  deep 
into  the  Ardennes  to  the  fortress  of  Givet,  the  key  of 
the  Meuse  valley.  The  softly  undulating  hill  country 
north  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse,  in  the  depth  of  which 
lie  further  thick  coal-beds,  forms  a  gradual  transition 
from  the  Ardennes  to  the  low-lying  foreland,  and  from 
Upper  Belgium  to  the  Netherlands. 

^  The  abundance  of  mineral  springs  characteristic  of  this  volcanic  region 
recurs  more  markedly  on  both  slopes  of  the  Taunus  ;  the  summits,  however,  of 
this  chain  are  not  of  volcanic  origin,  but  owe  their  altitude,  approaching  30CX) 
feet,  to  the  hardness  of  quartzites  withstanding  atmospheric  destruction. 


BLOCK    MOUNTAINS   AND   TABLELANDS      87 

Near   the    parting   between    the    basins   of   the   Rhine 
and    the   Weser,    the    ancient  formations    of    the    Lower 
Rhenish  mountains,  steeply    raised    and 
running  to  the  north-east,  disappear  be-    ^"^  Hartz  and 

*u  *u    a  *    1  *  r  J.U    TT  THE  Mountains 

neath  the  flat  plateau  of  the  Hesse  moun-    ^^  ^^^  Weser 

tain  country  ;  but  sixty  miles  to  the  east, 
on  the  parting  between  the  basins  of  the  Weser  and  the 
Elbe,  they  come  to  light  again  in  the  mighty  block  of  the 
Hartz  mountains.  Here,  too,  their  strata  strike  north-east- 
ward, and  their  high  pressed  folds  have  lost  their  peaks, 
and  only  the  torso,  a  mass  with  shallow  domed  summits, 
remains.  In  the  Hartz,  however,  the  whole  width  of  the 
base  is  not  upstanding,  but  only  a  fragment  bounded  by 
lines  of  fracture.  Along  its  length  from  south-east  to 
north-west  the  height  of  the  group  rises  gradually  from 
1000  to  2000  feet.  Thus  the  Lower  Hartz,  which  is 
already  to  a  great  extent  denuded  of  woods  and  given 
over  to  agriculture,  differs  from  the  thickly  wooded 
Upper  Hartz  district.  In  both  parts  great  masses  of 
granite  and  porphyry  rise  high  out  of  the  sedimentary 
rock,  the  bare  Brocken  to  a  height  of  3746  feet. 

Peculiar  charm  is  imparted  by  the  old  mining  works 
of  the  uplands,  the  deep  shafts  of  which  went  lower  than 
the  sea-level.  The  hill  country  about  Mansfeld  also,  the 
south-eastern  end  of  the  Hartz  mountains,  which  is  rich 
in  copper  and  silver,  is  enlivened  by  mining  operations. 
Although  the  Hartz  range  forms  a  lofty  island  overtopping 
its  environment,  the  country  around  is  by  no  means 
monotonous.  It  is  dominated  by  a  number  of  short  and 
narrow  lines  of  hill  divided  by  lower  lying  stretches  and 
following  the  same  north-western  direction  as  the  northern 
line  of  fracture  of  the  Hartz  mountains.  Thus  the  country 
north  of  these  mountains  is  filled  to  a  distance  of  thirty- 
five  miles  by  a  whole  swarm  of  these  mountain  fragments, 
which,  whether  covered  with  leafy  wood  or  bearing  the 
ruins  of  castles,  animate  the  landscape  by  a  succession 
of  changing  pictures.  This  conformation  of  the  country 
is  interrupted  by  an  inlet  of  the  lowland  at  Brunswick, 
but  directly  west  of  this  it  begins  again  on  both  sides  of 


88  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  Leine,  and  here  attains  a  considerable  breadth.  Beyond 
this  river,  whose  valley  opens  a  most  important  communi- 
cation between  Central  and  North  Germany  to  the  west  of 
the  Hartz  mountains,  rise  to  1300  feet  the  two  parallel 
ridges  of  the  Deister  and  the  Siintel,  which  are  of  import- 
ance to  their  neighbour,  Hanover,  because  they  supply  it 
not  only  with  excellent  sandstone  for  building,  but  also 
for  purposes  of  manufacture  with  good  coal  from  the 
Cretaceous  formations.  The  southern  slope  of  the  Siintel 
adjoins  the  Weser  just  after  this  river  has  cut  its  way 
through  the  most  northerly  of  the  Triassic  slabs  that 
stretch  northward  from  Hesse.  The  river  here  follows  the 
southern  foot  of  the  hills  for  twenty  miles  before  traversing 
in  the  famous  Westphalian  Gate  at  Minden.  Westward  of 
the  Weser  the  range  continues  for  forty  miles.  Parallel 
with  it  on  the  south-west,  beyond  the  long  hollow  of 
Osnabriick,  runs  the  Teutoburger  Wald,  with  elevations 
equally  gentle,  and  an  extent  even  longer.  Between  this 
and  the  northern  border  of  the  Lower  Rhenish  highland 
lies  the  country  in  which  the  Lippe  and  Ems  originate — 
the  inlet  of  the  Munster  lowland.  Its  eastern  angle  at 
Paderborn  is  shut  in  by  the  Egge  Mountain,  which  running 
southward,  links  together  the  two  chains. 

Note  on  Authorities. — Only  one  volume,  West  und  Siid-Deutschland, 
has  yet  appeared  of  Richard  Lepsius's  colossal  work,  Geologie  von 
Deutschland  und  den  Angrenzenden  Ldndern,  1887- 1892.  Most  of  the 
sheets  of  his  geological  map  of  the  German  Empire  are  therefore  without 
any  explanatory  text  such  as  F.  von  Hauer  has  supplied  in  a  short  space  to 
all  the  eleven  sheets  of  his  general  geological  map  of  Austria- Hungary. 

A  literary  guide  through  the  rich  special  literature  is  presented  by 
K.  Keilhack  and  E.  Zimmermann  {Abhandlungen  der  Koniglichen 
Preussischen  Geologischen  Landesanstali. — Neue  Folge,xiv.,  1893,  xxvi., 
1897). 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  NORTH  GERMAN  LOWLAND  AND  THE 
GERMAN  SEAS 

In  more  than  one  place  the  boundary  of  the  mountains  of 

Central  Germany  resembles  a  coast-line   rich   in  islands. 

Even  at  a  considerable  distance  heights  of  firm  rock  lift 

up  their  bold  heads  out  of  the  loose  diluvial  land.     Most 

of  them  fare   but   ill  ;    human   labour  is  swift   to  attack 

them.     The   limestone  mountains   of  Riidersdorf,   to  the 

east  of  Berlin,  are  being  so  quickly  quarried  that  deep 

hollows    are    already    yawning    where    hills    once    stood. 

The  proud  chalk  cliffs  of  Riigen,  however,  still  shine  out 

to  sea,  and  the  fretting  waves  still  toss  round  the  rock  of 

Heligoland.     In  other  parts,  the   deepest  borings  of  the 

world  have  dived   beneath   the   flat   and   uniform    upper 

surface  into  the  fundamental  rock,  and  there  reached  its 

treasures    of    salt,    gypsum,    and    coal.     On    the    whole, 

however,  our  knowledge  of  the  outline  and  composition 

of  these  deeper  rocks  is  but  fragmentary. 

The  filling  up  of  their  hollows  and  the  levelling   of 

their    surfaces   was  begun   even  in   the   Tertiary  period ; 

partly  by  the  seas  which  entered  through  the  Moravian 

gap    into    Upper   Silesia   and   Galicia,   and   in   the   north 

only  gradually  abandoned  Northern  Germany  ;  partly  by 

deposits  that  took  shape  on  the  new  mainland,  in  whose 

lakes  and  swamps  the  products  of  a  luxuriant  vegetation 

formed  those  beds  of  lignite  which  exist  below  the  bays 

of  the  Silesian   and  Saxon  lowland,   and  on  the  surface 

of  the    Mark,  no   less  than  in   the  Bohemian  basin  and 

the  Alpine  foreland.     These  Tertiary  formations,  however, 

were    subjected    to    the    destructive    catastrophe    of    the 

Glacial   Period,  which  dislocated  their  strata,  and  buried 

89 


90  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

them    under    new    formations,    thus    exercising    a    long- 
enduring  influence  on  the  surface  of  the  country. 

The  whole  North  German  plain  shows  traces  of  a 
considerable  movement  of  rocks  to  the  southward. 
Behind  every  upstanding  pillar  of  basalt,  on  its  southern 
side,  lies  a  space  covered  with  scattered  blocks,  among 
which  mingle  some  derived  from  Scandinavia,  Finland, 
and  the  Baltic  Islands,  the  proportion  of  these  increas- 
ing as  we  go  northward.  Geologists  have  recognised 
that  this  change  of  place  cannot  have  been  effected  by 
icebergs  floating  upon  the  seas  that  overspread  the  plain,, 
but  that  the  glaciers  of  the  Scandinavian  highland  pushed 
forward  their  masses  of  ice  into  Germany,  and  there 
produced  upon  the  land  those  effects  which  only  glacier 
masses  can  produce.  The  boulder  clay,  formed  as 
a  ground  moraine  moving  forward  beneath  a  weight 
of  ice,  is  interspersed  throughout  with  great  and 
little  stones  that  have  neither  order  nor  stratification,, 
their  surface  being  often  characteristically  polished  and 
scratched.  Even  blocks  of  immense  size  were  carried 
dow^n  by  the  slow  stream  of  ice,  which  on  the  mountains 
of  Central  Germany  sometimes  reached  as  high  as  1500 
or  even  2000  feet.  Its  border  followed  the  edge  of  these 
mountains  from  Duisburg  to  the  Moravian  gap,  and  also 
that  of  the  Carpathians  as  far  as  Sambor.  It  also 
penetrated  far  into  the  interior  of  the  mountains  near  the 
Thuringian  Forest,  as  far  as  Gotha  and  Saalfeld,  and 
along  the  Elbe  as  far  as  Schandau,  as  well  as  deep  into 
secluded  valleys  of  the  Sudetic  Mountains.  The  most 
evident  effect  left  upon  the  landscape  by  this  great  spread 
of  northern  ice,  is  probably  the  complete  levelling  of 
extensive  tracts  sheathed  by  the  clay  of  the  ground 
.  moraines.  The  fruitful  fields  south  of  Breslau  and  north 
of  Leipzig  were  thus  produced.  But  we  shall  seek  in  vain 
along  the  southern  limits  of  the  northern  diluvium  for 
typical  terminal  moraines.  If  they  ever  existed,  they 
have  long  ago  been  destroyed  again.  It  is  only  in  a  more 
northern  portion  of  Germany  that  raised  morainic 
formations    still    persist     in    the    scenery.       This    region 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     91 


92  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

experienced  a  second  invasion  of  ice,  proceeding  as  before 
from  Scandinavia,  which  overpowered  the  German  BaUic 
provinces,  but  did  not  progress  very  far  towards  the  south. 
It  would  seem  at  times  to  have  crossed  the  southern 
ridges  in  Silesia  and  the  Mark,  but  never  the  Elbe. 
The  retreating  steps  of  this  second  incursion  of  ice  appear 
to  be  marked  by  broad,  eroded  valleys  worn  out  by  the 
swelling  waters  into  which  the  ice  dissolved. 

This  second  glacial  period  seems  to  have  lasted 
specially  long  in  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Germany,  on 
the  summit  of  the  Baltic  ridge.  Many  places  along  the 
southern  border  of  this  ridge,  and  considerable  expanses 
of  its  surface,  have  been  formed  by  curved  rows  of 
great  terminal  moraines.  One  direct  consequence  of  the 
irregular  outline  of  surface  left  behind  by  the  later  ice 
period  is  the  abundance  of  lakes  existing  on  the  Baltic 
heights. 

The  circumstance  that  the  latest,  and  as  far  as  the 
conformation  of  the  country  is  concerned,  the  most 
important  manifestations  of  the  Glacial  Period,  came  from 
the  Baltic  Sea,  and  shaped  around  it  concentric  zones  of 
morainic  formations,  leads  us  to  start  from  this  sea 
in  considering  the  North  German  Lowland.  Around  its 
waters  hes  the  Baltic  Ridge.  From  this  we  descend 
southwards  into  the  zone  of  great  valleys  (Warsaw, 
Berlin,  Hamburg)  which  narrows  towards  the  west.  On 
the  southern  border  of  this  rises  a  second  inland  row  of 
hill  ranges.  From  these  the  prospect  extends  over  the 
wide  valley  basins  of  the  Silesian  Oder,  the  Saxon 
Elbe,  and  the  Hanoverian  Aller  to  the  front  of  the 
mountains  whose  spurs  press  forward  between  tliese 
three  valleys.  Thus  it  may  be  observed  that  the  north- 
western ends  of  four  zones  of  North  German  country 
approach  the  North  Sea.  They  do  not,  however,  carry 
their  natural  contrasts  in  full  force  up  to  that  sea,  for 
its  coast  is  bordered  by  a  lowland  that  extends  in  in- 
creasing breadth  from  Schleswig  to  the  Netherlands,  and 
of  this  the  dunes,  marshes,  and  moors  constitute  a  separate 
natural  division. 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     93 

The  Baltic  is  a  sea  of  recent  origin.  It  is  the  most 
sunken  portion  of  the  great  flat  tract  between  the  Scandi- 
navian Mountains  and  Central  Europe. 
The  sinkings  by  which  the  hollows  of  its  Baltic 
basin  were  fashioned  continued  through 
the  interval  between  the  two  Glacial  Periods.  Even 
when  the  Ice-Age  was  over,  the  shore  of  the  basin 
underwent  variations  of  level  which  have  repeatedly 
altered  the  manner  of  its  connection  with  the  ocean.  The 
Swedish  lakes  mark  the  place  of  an  old  Baltic  outlet  ;  and 
when  this  gap  closed,  the  Baltic  became  an  inland  sea, 
whose  surplus  waters  escaped  through  a  river  that  may  be 
compared  with  the  Neva.  The  position  of  this  outflow 
seems  to  have  changed,  for  the  sinking  of  the  ridge  of  land 
between  Jutland  and  Sweden  submerged  several  eroded 
channels  which  are  now  arms  of  the  sea.  Thus  arose  the 
Sound  and  the  Belts. 

The  shallowness  of  these  arms  limits  the  free  exchange 
of  water  with  the  ocean,  and  diminishes  the  saltness  of 
the  surface  water,  so  that  at  Alsen  the  Baltic  is  less  salt 
than  the  ocean  by  one-fifth,  and  at  Dantzig  by  one-half, 
and  this  enclosed  basin  is  consequently  more  easily 
affected  by  the  frosts  of  the  neighbouring  climates  and 
its  navigation  is  liable  to  be  interrupted  every  winter. 
The  interruption  lasts  longest  in  the  northern  and  eastern 
portions  of  the  Baltic ;  the  central  basin  suffers  compara- 
tively little.  Libau  remains  free  from  ice  in  most  winters, 
but  the  harbours  on  the  Baltic  coast  of  Germany  enjoy 
by  no  means  the  advantages  in  this  respect  which  might  be 
expected  from  their  southern  position.  They  lie  some 
distance  from  the  open  coast,  at  the  head  of  inlets  with 
enclosed  waters  or  river  mouths,  and  are  closed  to  naviga- 
tion for  appreciable  periods.  The  average  duration  of  the 
ice-block  in  the  open  sea  at  Memel  is  twelve  days,  at 
Swinemunde  twenty,  and  at  Travemiinde  twelve  ;  while 
the  inner  harbour  of  Memel  remains  closed  on  an  average 
for  142  days,  that  of  Neufahrwasser  near  Dantzig  for  eighty- 
one,  Stettin  for  sixty-one,  the  Greifswalder  Bodden  for 
fifty-eight,  and  Liibeck  for  thirty-two  days.     These  varia- 


94  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

tions  are  in  great  measure  due  to  the  conformation  of 
the  coast. 

The  slanting  waves  that  strike  the  coast  of  Eastern 
Pomerania  and  Russia  form  deposits  of  boulders  and 
sand,  and  the  constant  recurrence  of  waves  running  in 
the  same  direction  gradually  pushes  these  towards  the 
north-east,  and  builds  up  curving  strips  of  sand  which 
extend  like  a  loosely  hanging  chain  from  one  projecting 
point  to  another.  Becoming  gradually  heightened  and 
strengthened  by  the  accumulation  of  dunes,  they  cut  off 
shallow  pools  from  the  open  sea,  and  the  rivers  of  the 
country  convert  these  pools  into  fresh-water  lakes  with 
greater  or  less  completeness,  according  to  the  degree  in 
which  they  are  cut  off  from  communication  with  the 
waters  of  the  sea.  Thus  arise  the  "haffs"  or  fresh-water 
lakes  lying  behind  the  "  nehrungs  "  or  bars  of  land  whose 
coherence  is  occasionally  broken  by  an  inlet — a  ''deep." 

The  type  of  the  "  haff "  coast  is  most  fully  developed 
in  East  Prussia.  The  high  projection  of  the  Samland 
cape,  which  is  rich  in  amber,  makes  a  firm  link  between 
the  two  retreating  "  nehrungs,"  neither  of  which  rejoins 
the  main-coast  for  sixty  miles,  the  Kurische  Nehrung 
doing  so  to  the  north  of  the  Memel,  and  the  Frische 
Nehrung,  continued  by  the  dune  that  borders  the  delta  of 
the  Vistula,  at  Zoppot.  These  two  bars  are  only  broken 
at  their  northern  ends,  at  Memel  and  Pillau,  by  "deeps" 
which  open  a  highway  for  ships  to  the  mouths  of  the 
Niemen  and  the  Pregel.  The  "  haffs "  behind  have 
already  suffered  considerable  diminution  ;  the  Kurische 
Haff  owing  to  the  formation  of  the  delta  of  the  Niemen, 
which  consists  of  great  marshes,  and  the  Frische  Haff  to 
a  slight  extent  owing  to  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Pregel, 
and  to  a  great  extent  because  of  the  fruitful  richly  cultivated 
lowland  with  which  the  Vistula  has  completely  filled  its 
broad  western  end. 

The  Vistula  sends  but  two  branches  into  the  Frische 
Hafif,  while  the  main  river  reaches  the  sand  dunes  by 
the  sea  near  Dantzig,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  country 
rising    on    the    west    from    its    lowland.      The    point    at 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS      95 

which  it  breaks  through  the  sand-hills  has  changed 
even  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  western  portion 
of  the  great  gulf  of  Dantzig  is  sheltered  from  the  open 
sea  by  the  peninsula  of  Hela,  twenty  miles  long.     With 


Fig.  17. — A  Prussian  Haff. 


this  begins  the  monotonous  flat  coast  that  bounds  East 
Pomerania,  a  shore  with  numerous  border  lakes  lying 
behind  it. 

The  great  fresh-water  basin  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder 
also  bears  the  name  of  a  Haff.  But  the  division  of  this 
from  the  open  sea  is  not  effected  by  a  sandy  "  nehrung," 
but  by  the  islands  of  Wollin  and  Usedom. 


96 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


The  "  boddens  "  which  occur  along  the  coast  are  eccen- 
trically branched  shallow  bays,  the  outlines  of  which  have 
been  determined  sometimes  by  the  accidental  shapes 
of  half-submerged  blocks  of  diluvial  or  older  rock,  and 
sometimes  by  later  action  of  the  sea,  either  in  the  form 
of  a  destroying  invasion  of  its  waves,  or  more  often  by 


J^vZes 


Fig.  i8.— The  Boddens  of  Pomerania. 


new  marine  formations  which  have  sought  to  connect  a 
chain  of  islands,  and  have  succeeded  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  that  aim.  The  complex  coast-line  of  the  island 
of  Riigen  is  the  classic  example.  Narrow,  gently  curving 
sandbanks  link  together  some  old  cores  of  undulating 
diluvial  land  around  the  old  high-island  of  Jasmund  (527 
feet  high),  beneath  whose  crown  of  beech  trees  shine  the 
white  chalk  cliffs  of  Stubben  Kammer,  forming  a  beautiful 
landmark  from  the  distant  German   shore.       Arcona,   at 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     97 

the  north-eastern  point  of  Riigen,  needs  a  cable  only  fifty 
miles  in  length  to  connect  it  with  Scania  ;  and  the  most 
westerly  of  the  islets  is  but  thirty-five  miles  from  Moen, 
the  nearest  of  the  Danish  islands,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  line  of  ten  fathoms'  depth.     At  this  point  we  leave 


FiG.  19. — The  Forden  of  Holstein. 


the  open  main  basin  of  the  Baltic,  in  which  there  are 
depths  of  as  much  as  234  fathoms,  and  enter  the  narrow, 
shallower  waters  of  the  Belts. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  broad  gulf  of  Neustadt,  into 
the  head  of  which  the  Trave  flows,  a  third  type  of  coast 
formation  begins  on  the  shores  of  Holstein  :  that  of  the 
"  forden."     These  are  inlets  running  at  right  angles  to  the 


98  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

course  of  the  coast-line,  and  narrowing  as  they  go  up  into 
the  land :  they  are  evidently  submerged  valleys.  The 
most  important  of  them,  the  inlet  of  Kiel,  whose  entrance 
narrows  at  Friedrichsort  and  so  partly  and  advantage- 
ously encloses  the  inner  recess,  corresponds  in  a  strik- 
ing manner  to  the  upper  valley  of  the  Eider.  It  appears, 
indeed,  to  be  an  abandoned  valley  of  this  river,  which  was 
only  diverted  into  another  course  by  the  Glacial  Epoch. 
The  accumulation  of  the  ground  moraine  barred  the  return 
of  the  Eider  to  its  old  valley,  even  when  the  barrier  of  ice 
was  dissolved,  and  compelled  it  permanently  to  take  another 
way,  by  which  it  was  led  into  the  North  Sea.  In  like  manner, 
moraine  hills  form  the  western  close  of  the  valley  of  Ekern- 
forde.  The  "  forden  "  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  for  the  very 
reason  that  they  receive  no  rivers  and  no  alluvial  deposits, 
form  the  best  natural  harbours  of  the  Baltic,  whose  coastal 
formation  in  other  parts  everywhere  directs  navigation  to 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers. 

The  connected  belt  of  heights  running  round  the 
southern  basin  of  the  Baltic  from  Courland  to  Schleswig  is 
The  Baltic  broken  in  three  places  by  important  rivers. 
Ridge  of  the  widest  breach  being  at  the  north-eastern 

Land.  corner  of    the  German  Empire.      All  the 

north  of  East  Prussia  is  a  lowland,  formed  by  the  develop- 
ment of  cross-connecting  valleys,  between  the  hollows  of 
the  Niemen  and  the  Pregel.  The  Inster  fills  a  channel 
that  was  once  dug  by  an  arm  of  the  Niemen  running  into 
the  Pregel,  while  on  the  other  hand,  the  Deime,  an  arm  of 
the  Pregel,  runs  northward  into  the  Kurische  Haff.  The 
plateau  of  Samland  is  surrounded  by  water  on  every  side 
like  an  island. 

To  the  south  of  the  Pregel  the  land  begins  gradually 
to  rise  towards  the  Prussian  ridge.  Hundreds  of  lakes, 
some  of  them  basins  with  many  branches,  some  long 
narrow  channels  with  several  pieces  of  water  following 
one  another  like  beads  on  a  string,  lie  scattered  among 
the  hills  of  Masuria.  With  their  border  of  greenwood, 
rising  from  the  loamy  soil  of  the  shore    in    a   wide    fir 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     99 

and  pine  region,  they  form  scenes  of  which  the  beauty, 
if  not  winning,  is  powerful  and  stimulating.  The 
most  important  of  these  lakes,  Mauer  and  Spirding, 
cover  more  than  forty  square  miles,  and  lie  so  nearly 
on  the  same  level  as  many  others  adjacent,  that  with  a 
very  little  assistance,  they  might  be  joined  into  a  system  of 
navigable  waters  from  which  existing  outlets  would  run 
north  and  south  to  the  Pregel  and  the  Narew,  the  southern 
opening  alone,  however,  being  accessible  to  rafts.  A  more 
westerly  group  of  lakes,  from  which  the  Drewenz  flows 
south-westward  to  the  Vistula,  has  a  navigable  outlet 
towards  the  north,  to  Elbing  and  the  Frische  Haff.  The 
elevation  of  this  lake  country  is  but  little  less  than  the 
maximum  height  to  which  the  Baltic  ridge  attains  in 
the  Thurmberg  (1086  feet)  near  Dantzig,  to  west  of  the 
fertile  Vistula  valley.  The  varied  outline,  the  abundance 
of  water,  and  the  fertility  of  its  vicinity  form  a  contrast 
with  the  poor  and  monotonous  fir-woods  of  the  Heath  of 
Tuchel. 

A  system  of  lakes  comparable  with  that  of  East 
Prussia  does  not  appear  again  until  we  have  crossed  the 
Oder  and  arrived  among  the  high  ridges  of  Mecklenburg, 
to  the  north  of  that  nobly  developed  belt  of  terminal 
moraines  belonging  to  the  second  Glacial  Period,  which  has 
been  traced  from  Oderberg  north-westward  to  Schwerin. 
The  most  and  the  largest  of  Mecklenburg's  six  hundred  and 
fifty  lakes,  including  the  Lake  of  Miiritz  which  has  an 
area  of  fifty  square  miles,  send  their  surplus  waters  into 
the  Elbe. 

The  last  stretch  of  the  Baltic  Ridge,  in  the  Cimbrian 
Peninsula,  has  a  northerly  direction.  The  moraine 
formations  and  the  territory  of  the  fertile  boulder  clay 
fill  the  delightful  eastern  parts  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 
The  lakes  of  Eutin  and  PlSn  show  their  dark  levels  amid 
the  light  green  foliage  of  the  beech  woods,  while  the 
waters  of  the  sea  are  brought  by  deep  fiords  far  up 
into  the  cheerful  hills.  The  centre  of  the  country  is 
occupied  by  a  flat  and  uniform  sandy  heath,  sloping 
towards  the  west.    In  this  direction  the  plateau  is  dissected 


loo  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

into  broad  tongues,  and  between  these,  small  strips  of 
fertile  marshland  penetrate  from  the  shore  some  distance 
into  the  country.  From  the  diluvial  plain  of  Holstein 
rises,  suddenly  and  surprisingly,  a  peak  of  old  firm  rock, 
the  gypsum  of  Segeberg. 

Modest  as  are  the  heights  to  which  the  Baltic  Ridge 
attains,  they  have  been  sufficient  to  secure  to  the  lands 
traversed  by  it  a  separate  place  in  the  course  of  German 
development,  and  often  to  divide  their  fortunes  from  those 
of  the  Hinterland. 

The  same  processes  of  nature  that  shaped  the  Baltic 
Ridge  have  been  active  also  in  the  southern  adjacent 
The  Zone  territory  between  the  two  ridges.  Here, 
OF  Great  too,  appear  the  deposits  of  the  second 
Valleys.  Glacial     Period;     fertile      flats    of     boulder 

clay,  wide  sandy  plains,  erratic  blocks  lying  singly, 
or  in  accumulated  hills  that  may  be  followed  up  for 
many  miles.  The  forms,  however,  of  the  landscape  have 
been  less  decisively  affected  by  their  accumulation  than 
by  the  destruction  which  occurred  a  little  later.  The 
streams  of  melting  waters  that  poured  upon  the  ex- 
posed land  as  soon  as  the  masses  of  ice  began  to  retreat, 
cut  into  its  surface  broad  deep  valleys,  which  in  many 
parts  have  determined  the  courses  of  our  existing,  feebler 
rivers,  and  in  other  parts  have  considerably  facilitated 
artificial  connections  between  these  rivers  (Fig.  16).  The 
surface  of  the  country  and  the  border-line  of  the  ice  at 
the  different  stages  of  its  retreat  gave  a  westerly  direction 
to  the  melting  waters  in  the  eastern  parts,  while  farther 
to  the  west,  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Elbe,  this  direction 
became  north-westerly. 

Among  the  many  old  valley  courses  two  are  to  be 
distinguished  as  particularly  important :  the  valley  of 
Thorn  and  Eberswalde,  and  the  main  valley  from  Warsaw 
to  Berlin.  The  former  accompanies  the  southern  edge  of 
the  Baltic  Ridge  from  Lithuania  to  the  confluence  of  the 
Havel,  and  receives  in  succession  the  following  rivers  : — 
the  Bobr,  the  Narew,  the  Vistula,  the  Brahe,  the  Netze, 
the  Warta,  and  the  Oder  (between  Ciistrin  and  Oderberg). 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND  AND   SEAS     loi 

The  canals  that  connect  this  point  with  the  Lower  Havel 
have  to  wind  their  way  through  many  glens  which  cannot 
have  belonged  to  the  bed  of  a  gigantic  river.  Only  at 
some  period  when  the  level  of  the  valleys  still  lay 
considerably  higher  can  the  original  Vistula  have  taken 
its  course  this  way  to  the  Elbe.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
western  stretch  of  the  main  valley  was  the  first  to  fall  out 
of  use,  when  the  Oder  began  to  make  its  way  north- 
ward through  the  Pomeranian  plateau  to  the  Haff.  The 
connection  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  on  the 
other  hand,  would  appear  to  have  ceased  only  after  the 
valleys  had  been  very  deeply  excavated.  The  summit 
level  of  the  Bromberg  Canal  lies  only  loo  feet  above 
the  water  of  the  Vistula,  and  the  valley  eroded  at 
the  southern  foot  of  the  ridge  by  this  river  continues 
westward,  in  undiminished  width,  between  high  banks, 
from  the  point  at  which  the  stream  quitted  it.  The  little 
river  Brahe  looks  like  a  dwarf  in  it  who  has  slipped  into 
the  armour  of  a  giant. 

Similar  phenomena  of  diluvial  origin  occur  in  the 
main  valley,  which  begins  in  the  broad,  open  basin  of 
Warsaw.  From  the  Vistula  it  may  be  followed  through 
the  valley  of  its  tributary,  the  Bzura,  over  a  marshy 
valley-watershed  at  Lenczyce  to  the  Ner,  a  tributary  of  the 
W^arta.  Thence  a  slight  ascent  of  twenty-three  feet  from 
Moschin  on  the  Warta  leads  to  the  Obra.  The  southern 
branch  of  this  bifurcating  river  obtains  access  to  the  Oder, 
which  at  Fiirstenberg,  where  begins  the  northward  turn 
towards  Frankfurt,  lies  only  forty-three  feet  lower  than 
the  summit  level  of  the  canal  to  the  Spree  along  the 
former  valley  of  the  Oder.  On  the  other  side  of  Berlin 
and  Spandau,  the  marshy  depression  of  the  Havelland 
is  a  direct  continuation  to  the  Lower  Havel  of  this  old 
valley  of  the  Oder. 

Yet  a  third  and  more  southerly  similar  main  valley 
of  the  Diluvial  Period  may  be  traced  in  the  Mark  of 
Brandenburg  ;  this  is  the  valley  of  Baruth,  whose  eastern 
portion  includes  the  Spreewald,  with  its  innumerable 
watercourses,  while  its  junction  with  the  Elbe  valley  is 


102  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

marked  by  other  swamps.  If  we  attempt  to  trace  the 
valley  farther  eastward  to  the  Oder  at  Glogau  and  to  the 
Bartsch,  we  come  upon  bars  of  land  which  seem  less 
compatible  with  the  continued  action  of  a  great  river 
than  with  possible  occasional  overflows  from  a  lake 
dammed  back  in  one  of  these  more  easterly  valleys. 

Lateral  connections  between  the  three  great  valleys 
are  formed  by  the  Obra,  the  Oder,  the  Spree,  the 
Havel,  and  other  cross-valleys.  The  vegetation  of  the 
alder  swamp  proclaims  the  natural  condition  of  this  net- 
work of  depressions  which  were  important  as  boundaries 
of  districts  and  formed  serious  barriers  to  communication. 
Many  large  portions  of  these  valleys,  previously  neglected, 
were  brought  under  cultivation  only  in  the  last  century. 
The  colonisation  of  the  Oder  swamp  and  of  the  lowland 
of  the  Warta  and  Netze  valleys,  the  improvement  of  the 
natural  waterways,  and  the  opening  of  artificial  ones 
were  the  memorable  achievements  of  enlightened  and 
energetic  rulers.  Wide  areas  of  once  barren  country 
have  been  turned  into  productive,  cultivated  lands.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Oder  alone,  between  the  two  Ridges, 
dikes  protect  no  less  than  455  square  miles,  and  in 
the  Warta  swamp,  between  Ciistrin  and  Schwerin,  140 
square  miles. 

Before  the  geological  formation  of  Russia  was  known, 
no  scruple  was  felt  in  linking  the  Ridges  of  Germany,  by 
The  Southern  *^^  names  of  Uralo-Baltic  and  Uralo-Car- 
RiDGE  OF  Land  pathian,  with  the  farthest  mountains  of 
AND  THE  Russia.     Neither  of  these  ridges  stands  in 

Valleys  at  any  sort  of  relation  to  the  Ural  Mountains, 
ITS  SOUTHERN  j^qj.  j^^g  ^j^g  southcm  of  them  the  remotest 
connection  with  the  Carpathians  ;  it  is  not 
even  in  any  way  a  continuation  of  the  terraced  country 
of  Poland  and  Upper  Silesia,  from  which  its  commence- 
men-t  is  sharply  divided  by  the  marshy  valley  at  Kempen, 
which  runs  from  the  Upper  Weide  to  the  Prosna.  In 
height  and  unity  the  southern  ridge  is  inferior  to  that 
of  the   Baltic.       Its  parts   are  separated  by  considerable 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     103 

gaps — the  sandy  heights  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of 
Posen,  the  fruit-bearing  hills  of  Northern  Silesia,  the 
dry  Flaming  south  of  the  Mark,  and  the  solitary 
Liineburg  Heath.  The  high  undulating  plateau  of  this 
last,  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Aller,  contains  a  solitary 
Triassic  outcrop,  and  is  thus  unlike  the  other  hills,  whose 
core  is  made  of  the  Tertiary  deposits  carrying  lignites. 
The  limestone,  gypsum,  and  salt  springs  of  the  Heath 
give  some  importance  to  the  old  town  of  Liineburg. 
Triassic  sandstone  also  composes  the  rock  of  Heligo- 
land. Towards  the  south  the  inland  portions  of  this 
ridge  fall  away  into  three  very  dissimilar  valley  districts. 
That  of  Silesia  exhibits  a  fertile  centre  flanked  right 
and  left  by  sandy  forests ;  that  of  Saxony  is  entirely 
composed  of  good  soils,  while  the  south-east  of  Hanover 
comprises  extensive  bogs.  With  all  these  differences 
there  are  signs  of  former  hydrographic  unity  among 
these  three  districts,  between  which  the  mountains  jut 
out  northwards.  Between  the  Oder  and  the  Elbe, 
striking  links  of  connection  are  formed  by  the  long 
valley  of  the  Black  Elster  and  the  swampy  hollows 
of  Lower  Silesia.  Still  more  closely,  however,  is  the 
zone  of  great  valleys  recalled  by  the  appearance  of 
the  most  westerly  of  the  German  alder  swamps — the 
Dromling  —  from  which  the  Ohre  flows  to  the  Eibe 
and  the  Aller  to  the  Weser.  Nor  will  the  commercial 
importance  of  the  Dromling  long  remain  inferior  to  that 
of  the  more  easterly  valley-watersheds,  for  here  the  pro- 
jected midland  canal  will  open  a  connection  between  the 
Weser  and  the  Elbe.  Thus  navigation  will  soon  be 
active  in  the  hitherto  silent  valley  of  the  Aller,  as  it  has 
long  been  on  the  whole  German  course  of  the  Elbe,  and 
for  some  years  past  in  the  upper  reg.ons  of  the  Oder  as 
far  as  Kosel,  the  river  port  of  Upper  Silesia. 

The  basin  of  the  Weser,  in  common  with  the  more 
easterly  rivers,  has  a  very  one-sided  development,  the 
left-hand  portion  being  restricted,  while  the  right  extends 
far,    and    includes    a    widely  spread    tributary   which   at 


I04  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

its  mouth  exerts  a  visible  influence  upon  the  direction 
of  the  main  stream.  The  whole  course  of  the  Weser, 
The  North  however,  from  the  Westphalian  Gate  to  -the 
Sea  and  its  mouth,  is  not,  like  that  of  the  other  rivers, 
Lowlands.  overlooked  by  the  margin  of  a  ridge,  but 
lies  open  in  a  lowland,  which  exhibits  neither  division 
of  its  surface  by  lines  of  hills,  nor  any  other  of  the 
distinctive  marks  of  the  East  German  plain.  The 
enlivening  abundance  of  variously  shaped  lakes  has  here 
disappeared  from  the  country.  The  only  pieces  of  water 
remaining  on  either  side  of  the  Weser,  the  Steinhuder 
Meer  and  the  Diimmer — extensively  covered  by  marshy 
deposits  from  which  great  pieces  occasionally  break  off 
and  drift  to  and  fro  as  floating  islands — are  entirely 
different  from  the  East  German  diluvial  lakes  ;  they  are 
but  portions  of  that  great  chain  of  bogs  belonging  to 
the  North  Sea  district,  which  begins  west  of  the  Liineburg 
Heath,  not  far  from  the  northern  edge  of  the  Weser  moun- 
tains, and  continuing  in  cheerless  alternation  with  the  dry 
and  sandy  flats  of  the  "geest,"  occupies  the  interior  of  the 
North  Sea  lowland  up  to  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  nature 
of  the  country's  surface  is  here  not  determined  by  its 
conformation,  but  almost  entirely  by  the  alternations  of 
dry  and  damp  stretches  of  land. 

The  bogs  are  not  confined  to  the  hollows  and  de- 
pressions of  the  earth,  and  the  majority  of  them  are  by  no 
means  standing  waters  filled  up  with  vegetation  ;  most 
of  them  have  arisen  on  shallow  sandy  soil  with  some 
impermeable  formation  below,  which  sometimes  consists 
of  clayey  strata,  and  sometimes  of  a  solid  stratum  of  bog 
iron  ore,  formed  of  sand  cemented  together  by  hydrates 
of  iron.  Upon  the  soil  of  such  underlying  deposits 
have  grown  generation  after  generation  of  bog-forming 
plants  that  rise  into  a  "  high-moor  "  shaped  like  a  shallow 
watch-glass.  Insufficiency  of  nourishment  limits  the  flora 
of  the  upper  levels  to  those  frugal  ericaceae  which  live 
on  dry  sandy  soils ;  poverty  of  wood  is  common  both 
to  the  bogs  and  to  the  dry  "  geest."  Wide  areas  of  North- 
western  Germany    thus   come    to    have    a    monotonous, 


NORTH    GERxMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     105 

melancholy  character  of  landscape.  The  unbounded 
horizon,  however,  produces  an  overwhelming  impression 
like  that  of  the  vastness  of  the  sea. 

The  largest  bogs  lie  in  Friesland,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Ems.  On  its  right  the  Leda  cuts  off  the  Aremberg  Moor, 
which  is  690  square  miles  in  extent,  from  that  of  East 
Friesland,  274  square  miles  in  extent  ;  while  on  the  left, 
along  the  border  of  the  Netherlands  extends  the  Bourtanger 
Moor,  with  an  area  of  530  square  miles.  Although  hardly 
a  fourth  part  of  these  belongs  to  Holland,  yet  the  whole 
proportion  of  that  country  occupied  by  bogs  is  reckoned 
at  1766  square  miles,  nearly  14  per  cent  of  its  whole 
area.  These  boggy  portions,  however,  are  almost  entirely 
confined  to  the  three  north-eastern  provinces. 

The  moor-lands  are  in  general  sterile  and  thinly 
peopled.  But  the  time  has  gone  by  in  which  their  surface 
was  utilised  only  as  poor  pasturage,  while  the  efforts  at 
cultivation  were  confined  to  a  few  spots  which  were  burnt 
off,  and  among  the  ashes  of  which  a  little  buckwheat  grew, 
until  the  wretched  soil  was  exhausted  and  left  to  lie  idle. 
Excellent  results  have  already  been  obtained  from  the  more 
thorough  methods  of  cultivation,  which  consist  in  remov- 
ing the  peat  and  ploughing  in  the  subsoil,  which  is  some- 
times of  extremely  fertile  alluvium.  Along  the  canals,  too, 
by  which  the  bogs  are  drained,  and  of  which  the  wide 
ramifications  serve  as  highways  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
peat  and  the  intercourse  of  the  settlers,  have  sprung  up 
prosperous  colonies  in  this  once  desolate  country.  In 
East  Friesland,  Papenburg  is  the  most  striking  instance  of 
this  kind.  Far  more  extensive,  however,  are  the  results 
obtained  by  such  labours  in  the  province  of  Groningen, 
where  more  than  half  the  original  bogs  have  been  thus 
reclaimed  and  turned  into  plough-lands. 

On  a  still  greater  scale,  however,  is  the  struggle  between 
man  and  ungracious  nature  as  seen  in  the  marsh  districts 
nearer  to  the  coast,  where  lowlands  of  fertile  silt  deposited 
by  the  rivers  of  the  country,  or  in  many  cases  by  the 
invading  waters  of  the  sea,  lie  behind  the  zone  of  sand- 
dunes  that   formerly   made  a   completer   border   than    at 


io6  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

present  along  the  shore  of  the  North  Sea.  There  was 
evidently  a  time  when  the  whole  coast  from  the  north 
point  of  Jutland  to  Flanders  was  fox"med  by  a  great  barrier 
of  dunes,  the  course  of  which,  curved  like  a  reversed  letter 
S,  was  regular  to  monotony,  and  only  left  open  a  few  out- 
lets for  the  waters  of  the  mainland.  Of  this  great  ancient 
belt  of  dunes,  four  divided  fragments  remain  as  portions 
of  the  main  shore,  and  even  these  are  not  uninjured  : — 

(i)  The  dunes  of  Jutland,  from  the  Skaw  to  Blavands- 
hook. 

(2)  The  dunes  of  the  peninsula  of  Eiderstedt. 

(3)  The  dunes  of  Holland,  from  Helder  to  the  mouth 

of  the  Rhine. 

(4)  The  dunes  of  Flanders,  on  the  other  side  of  the 

mouths  of  the  Scheldt. 

These,  however,  must  not  be  considered  as  abiding 
and  permanent  formations.  For  not  only  the  waters  of 
the  sea,  but  also  the  very  sand  itself  takes  part  in  the 
conflict  of  natural  forces  by  which  the  coasts  are  shaped. 
The  power  of  the  wind,  by  which  the  dunes  were  accumu- 
lated, does  not  leave  the  sand  at  rest,  but  is  constantly 
driving  it  onward  over  the  ridge  of  the  dune  till  whole  hills 
are  gradually  displaced  and  begin  to  travel  inland.  A 
Roman  edifice  erected  on  the  inner  side  of  a  dune  has 
been  known  to  be  first  covered  up  by  sand-drifts  and  then, 
when  the  dune  had  passed  over  and  beyond  it,  to  re- 
appear behind,  only  to  be  swallowed  up  soon  after  by  the 
waves. 

The  whole  border  of  the  flat  North  Sea  shore  has  cer- 
tainly retreated  considerably  before  the  invasions  of  the 
sea  within  the  last  two  thousand  years.  Much  greater,  how- 
ever, have  been  the  losses  in  the  three  great  gaps  which 
to-day  divide  the  four  banks  of  sand-dunes.  When  once 
the  natural  bulwark  of  the  dunes  was  broken  through,  no 
efforts  of  the  threatened  inhabitants  availed  to  protect  the 
loose  marsh  country — which  often  rested  on  a  foundation 
of  still  quaking  bog — from  the  wild  assaults  of  the  waves. 
A   natural    sinking    of    the    coast    increased    the    danger, 


NORTH   GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     107 

especially  for  those  areas  which  now  lie  lower  than 
the  level  of  high  tides ;  these,  owing  to  the  increasing 
difficulty  of  drainage,  were  threatened  with  inundation 
from  the  inland  waters  also.  The  combination  of  con- 
ditions so  unfavourable  led  to  catastrophes  by  which 
hundreds  of  square  miles  were  swallowed  up  and  many 
thousand  human  lives  destroyed.  The  formation  of  the 
Zuyder  Zee  (1219-1287),  of  the  Dollart  (1277-1287),  and 
the  Jade  Bay  (1218-1511)  were  only  the  worst  of  those 
disasters  which  made  the  Middle  Ages  so  momentous  in 
the  history  of  the  North  Sea  coast.  It  was  not  until 
the  sixteenth  century  that  the  laborious  but  effective  recla- 
mation of  lost  lands,  by  the  embankment  of  "  polders " 
regained  from  the  sea,  was  deliberately  and  systematically 
undertaken.  Holland,  in  particular,  has  pursued  this 
course  of  peaceful  conquest  with  brilliant  success. 

On  the  west  coast  of  Schleswig  the  belt  of  marshes  is 
but  narrow,  and  at  some  points  so  completely  destroyed 
that  the  dry  "  geest "  comes  close  to  the  sea.  The 
luxuriant  meadows  of  Ditmarsh,  the  carefully  cultivated 
lowlands  of  Kehdingen,  Hadeln,  and  Wursten  between  the 
Elbe  and  the  Weser,  and  of  Butjadingen  between  the 
Weser  and  the  Jade,  are  only  sheltered  by  dikes.  On  the 
shore  of  Holstein,  in  the  last  century,  territory  has  even 
been  conquered  from  the  sea,  and  some  "  polders  "  wrested 
from  the  dominion  of  the  shoals  ;  their  broad  expanse  has 
now  become  the  best  bulwark  of  these  coasts  against  the 
attack  of  enemies.  The  estuary  of  the  Elbe  is  the  part 
freest  for  navigation,  but  even  here  the  shoals  extend 
twenty  miles  into  the  sea  from  Cuxhaven.  Half-way  be- 
tween that  port  and  Heligoland  lies  the  first  of  the  light- 
ships which  point  the  mariner  to  navigable  channels  be- 
tween shifting  shallows,  while  the  two  lighthouses  on  the 
island  of  Neuwerk  offer  fixed  points  for  his  guidance  and 
lead  him  on  to  the  light  at  the  promontory  of  Cuxhaven. 
The  deep  clear  waters  that  at  this  point  lie  close  to  the 
shores  of  Hadeln  carry  him  in  a  sweep  across  the  estuary 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  at  Brunsbiittel 
on  the  coast  of  Holstein.     Safe  as  is  navigation  in  clear 


io8  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

weather  amid  this  abundance  of  sea-marks,  yet  in  a  fog 
the  services  of  a  pilot  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  locality 
are  indispensable,  and  in  war-time,  when  the  lights  w^re 
extinguished  and  the  beacons  removed,  the  approach  of  a 
foreign  fleet  to  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  would  be  attended 
by  very  considerable  hazard. 

This  is  the  case  in  even  higher  degree  in  regard  to 
the  Weser  and  the  Jade  Bay.  In  spite  of  all  sea-marks, 
it  is  highly  inadvisable  to  sail  into  the  mouth  of  the 
Weser  without  the  guidance  of  a  pilot,  because  of  the 
alterations  in  the  shallows  constantly  being  made  by  the 
tides.  On  the  Jade,  too,  the  station  of  Wilhelmshaven 
is  only  kept  safely  accessible  for  ironclads  of  considerable 
draught  by  a  continual  dredging  of  the  channel. 

The  high  tides  beat  with  somewhat  less  violence  upon 
the  marshes  of  Friesland,  for  a  girdle  of  islands,  150 
miles  long,  with  firm  dunes,  persists  from  Wangeroog 
to  Texel.  Yet  both  this  girdle  and  the  mainland  behind 
have,  within  historical  times,  undergone  a  considerable 
process  of  destruction,  especially  at  the  estuary  of  the 
Ems.  The  last  centuries,  however,  have  seen  the  greatest 
losses  on  the  Dollart  and  Lauvers  Zee  in  a  considerable 
measure  regained. 

It  is  now  well  ascertained  that  the  great  inland  lake, 
distinctly  divided  from  the  sea,  known  to  the  Romans 
by  the  name  of  Flevo,  was  in  the  thirteenth  century 
changed,  by  the  destruction  of  the  land  barrier  at  its 
western  shore,  into  a  bay  of  the  sea.  The  success 
attending  the  enterprise  of  Holland  in  draining  large 
inland  waters,  such  as  the  Haarlemer  Meer  (70  square 
miles  in  extent)  and  the  Lake  of  Ij  (23  square  miles), 
has  inspired  the  attempt  to  dry  up  the  greater  part 
of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  A  mighty  dike  to  the  Island  of 
Wieringen  is  to  close  the  entrance  of  this  inland  sea. 
Four  great  "  polders,"  west  and  east  of  the  basin,  are  to  be 
embanked  step  by  step,  and  its  area  thus  reduced  from 
1400  to  560  square  miles.  The  labour  of  this  great  work, 
the  cost  of  which  is  reckoned  at  189  million  gulden, 
or  nearly  16  millions  sterling,  will  receive  a  rich  return  in 


NORTH    GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     109 

the  reclamation  of  nearly  800  square  miles  of  fertile 
cultivable  land. 

In  all  undertakings  for  the  protection  of  the  shore 
against  the  sea,  especial  difficulties  are  presented  by  the 
problem  of  how  to  drain  the  marshes  that  lie  below  the 
average  height  of  high  tide.  This  is  the  case  with  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
task  has  only  been  achieved  by  the  formation  of  an  exactly 
planned  network  of  trenches  extending  over  the  entire 
lowland,  and  sometimes  crossing  one  another  at  different 
levels,  supplemented  by  a  series  of  pump-works,  generally 
employing  wind  power,  where  the  water  is  raised  from 
the  hollows  into  the  canals  above. 

Of  the  mighty  volume  of  water  belonging  to  the  Rhine, 
the  division  of  which  begins  soon  after  its  entrance  into 
Holland,  only  one-ninth  is  carried  into  the  Zuyder  Zee 
by  the  Yssel,  and  two-ninths  to  Rotterdam  by  the  Lek, 
while  six-ninths  fall  to  the  share  of  the  Waal.  Above 
Rotterdam  the  Lek  receives  a  contribution  from  the 
Waal,  and  flows  into  the  sea  at  the  Hook  of  Holland 
under  the  name  of  the  Maas,  a  name  only  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  reception  into  this  estuary  of  a  former 
arm  of  the  river  of  that  name  which  rises  in  France. 
This  once  existing  connection  was,  perhaps,  served  by 
"  de  oude  Maas,"  the  name  given  to  a  northern  branch 
of  the  Waal  which  runs  towards  the  estuary  of  the  Lek 
below  Dordrecht.  Soon  after  taking  in  the  true  Maas 
(Meuse)  the  Waal  assumes  the  name  of  Merwede,  and 
under  that  designation  flows  into  the  southern  estuary  of 
the  Hollandsh  Deep.  To  the  same  estuary  will  the 
Meuse  itself,  whose  borders  have  occasionally  suffered 
owing  to  the  backward  flow  of  the  flood-waters  of  the 
Waal,  be  guided  by  means  of  an  independent  channel 
on  the  south.  The  separation  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  Meuse  will  then,  for  the  first  time,  be  made 
complete. 

If  we  merely  considered  on  a  map  the  two  broad 
double  mouths  with  which  the  delta  of  the  Rhine 
opens    to    the    west,  we    might    easily  be   deceived  into 


no  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

supposing  that  a  superabundance  of  excellent  water- 
ways, with  fine  cross-communications,  lay  open  here  to 
large  ships.  The  breadth  of  all  these  channels,  however, 
has  been  gained  by  the  washing  away  of  land,  and  they 
are  all  rendered  shallow  by  the  alluvial  deposits  from  the 
rivers. 

This  detracts  from  the  superiority  which  might  have 
been  expected  of  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  as  compared 
with  those  of  the  Scheldt,  close  by  on  the  south. 
Although  only  the  Wester  Scheldt  is  of  value  to  naviga- 
tion, even  of  this  the  channel  requires  constant  care 
and  watchfulness  in  the  interests  of  the  active  traffic  that 
streams,  not  only  towards  the  estuary  and  the  harbour  of 
Flushing,  the  port  of  Walchern,  but  also  towards  the  river 
port  of  Antwerp,  which  lies  upon  tidal  waters.  The 
importance  of  this  main  centre  of  Belgian  international 
traffic  is  threatened  by  no  rival  in  its  own  country. 
Beyond  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt  a  close  line  of  dunes 
begins  again,  offering  an  excellent  bathing-place  for  land- 
rats,  and  a  most  undesirable  field  of  labour  for  the  seaman. 
For  while,  at  a  short  distance  in  front  of  the  high  dunes 
of  North  Holland,  stretch  the  uniform  depths  of  the 
"  Breite  Vierzehn "  (fourteen  fathoms  everywhere)  ;  in 
front  of  the  coast  of  Flanders  are  the  Flemish  Banks, 
beginning  even  at  the  estuary  of  the  Scheldt,  and 
increasing  towards  the  south-west  both  in  number  and  in 
danger.  The  southern  part  of  the  Flemish  coast  belongs 
to  France;  but  the  natural  southern  boundary  of  the 
North  Sea  lowland  is  not  reached  until  the  Pas  de 
Calais,  where  ends  the  North  Sea  itself. 

The  opening  of  this  strait  has  decisively  altered  the 
character  and  importance  of  the  North  Sea.  It  is  an 
extensive  but  excessively  shallow  basin  of  water.  "A 
sheet  of  writing-paper  is  thicker  in  proportion  to  its  length 
and  breadth  than  is  the  stratum  of  water  covering  the  bed 
of  the  North  Sea  in  comparison  with  its  superficial  area." 
The  southern  part,  with  which  alone  we  are  concerned,  up 
to  latitude  55^  (from  Alnmouth  to  Blaavanshook),  has  an 
area  of  75,500  square   miles,   and   an    average  depth   of 


NORTH   GERMAN    LOWLAND   AND   SEAS     iii 

1 8  fathoms.  Not  only  is  there  a  wide  stretch  along  the 
coasts  which  is  shallower  than  this,  but  even  in  the  midst 
of  the  North  Sea  rises  the  Dogger  Bank,  running  north- 
eastward from  the  estuary  of  the  H  umber  and  very  rich 
in  fish.  It  exercises  an  important  influence  upon  the 
course  of  the  tide  which  comes  into  the  North  Sea  be- 
tween the  Shetlands  and  Orkneys,  follows  the  coast  of 
Scotland  southward,  and  then  runs  to  the  west  and  south 
of  the  impeding  Dogger  Bank.  It  is  at  Texel  that  this  tide 
meets  the  tide  from  the  Channel,  which  controls  the 
south-west  of  the  sea  and  goes  on  to  wash  the  shores  of 
Germany  in  a  mainly  eastward  course.  Tides  are  the 
breath  of  fresh  life  to  a  sea.  The  tide  runs  far  up,  too, 
into  the  rivers  of  the  country,  swells  their  waters  daily 
to  a  higher  power,  and,  more  effectually  than  any  human 
labours  can,  opens  up  a  broad  belt  of  shoreland  to 
navigation.  Like  a  greeting  from  the  ocean,  the  flood- 
tide  rushes  up  to  the  wharves  of  Antwerp,  Bremen,  and 
Hamburg,  inviting  the  inlands  to  take  part  in  the  traffic 
with  far  regions. 

Note  on  Authorities. — The  best  general  view  of  the  results  of  modern 
investigation  is  given  by  Wahnschaffe,  Die  llrsachcn  der  Ob^r/ldchen 
gestaltung  des  Norddeutschen  Flachlandes^  1901. 

A  more  particular  explanation  of  Fig.  16  is  given  by  K.  Keilhack 
{Jahrbuch  der  Koniglichen  Preussischen  Geologischeti  Landesanstalt  for 
1878,  and  Verhandlungen  der  Gesellschaft  fiir  Erdkunde  zu  Berlin,  xxvi., 
1899). 

An  exact  account  of  the  German  seas  is  afforded  by  the  marine  hand- 
books of  the  German  Admiralty. 

Rudolph  Credner  deals  with  Die  Enstehung  der  Osisee  {Ceographische 
Zeitschrift\  i.,  1895). 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CLIMATE 

The  whole  continent  of  Europe  enjoys  climatic  conditions 
which  are  in  every  respect  moderate,  and  this  advantage 
naturally  reaches  the  highest  development  in  its  centre. 
Considerable  differences  in  essential  points  are  not,  how- 
ever, excluded,  and  are  of  great  assistance  to  various 
forms  of  cultivation.  Indeed,  Central  Europe  possesses, 
within  the  lines  of  demarcation  set  by  the  great 
mountain  formations,  some  share  in  all  the  zones  of 
climate  belonging  to  the  continent,  the  Arctic  alone 
excepted. 

The  differences  of  latitude,  especially  in  the  east  be- 
tween Memel  (55°  43')  and  the  mouth  of  the  Bojana 
(41°  52'),  are  too  great  to  fail  of  producing  sharp  con- 
trasts of  character.  The  widest  departure  from  the  normal 
conditions  of  Central  Europe  is  certainly  exhibited  by  the 
hot  cauldron  of  Herzegovina,  where  Mostar  displays  a  July 
heat  of  78.6°  Fahrenheit,  and  has  to  prepare  itself  every 
year  for  an  average  maximum  heat  of  106°  Fahrenheit. 
Here,  only  thirty  miles  from  the  Adriatic,  the  African 
height  of  the  summer  temperature  brings  about  such  an 
intensification  of  annual  variations  as  is  only  produced 
elsewhere  by  the  cutting  winter  cold  of  the  continental 
climate.  In  the  interior  of  Germany,  however,  the  varia- 
tions of  temperature  in  higher  and  lower  latitudes  are  so 
thoroughly  compensated  by  the  elevation  of  the  country 
towards  the  south,  that  on  the  yearly  average  Munich  is 
2.2°  cooler  than  Schleswig. 


CLIMATE 
Let  us  glance  at  a  few  figures  : — 


113 


Place. 

Latitude. 

Height. 

Mean  Tempera 

ure. 

Difference. 

AimuaL 

Jaauary. 

July. 

Degrees. 

Feet. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Cambridge 

52.13 

39 

50-4 

38.7 

63.7 

25.0 

Utrecht      . 

525 

43 

49.8 

34-7 

6S.1 

30.4 

Hanover    . 

52.22 

190 

48.4 

33.6 

64.2 

30.6 

Berlin 

52.30 

157 

47.5 

31.6 

65.1 

33-5 

Posen 

52.25 

213 

46.6 

29.3 

65.5 

36.2 

Warsaw 

52.13 

394 

45.1 

25.9 

65.8 

39-9 

The  decrease  of  mean  annual  temperature  towards 
the  east  arises  from  the  considerable  intensification  and 
longer  duration  of  the  cold  in  winter,  while  the  heat  of 
summer  does  not  diminish  as  we  go  eastward,  but  in- 
creases ;  and  the  clearest  mark  of  entry  into  the  climate 
of  the  continent  is  the  conspicuous  increase  in  the  yearly 
variation  of  temperature. 

The  mild  winters  of  the  west  are  an  advantage 
highly  to  be  prized.  It  is  true,  the  figures  of  the  tem- 
perature in  the  shade  are  by  no  means  decisive.  The 
damp  and  stormy  winter  weather  of  the  North  Sea  is  far 
more  trying  to  human  powers  of  endurance  than  is  a 
brilliant,  still  winter's  day  in  Poland,  with  the  snow 
crackling  underfoot.  Persons  in  delicate  health,  how- 
ever, do  well  to  avoid  the  cutting  winter  airs  of  the  east, 
and  to  take  refuge  in  the  mild  nooks  of  the  Rhine  Valley 
at  Wiesbaden  or  Baden-Baden,  or,  better  still,  on  the 
delightful  east  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where  some 
of  the  advantages  may  be  enjoyed  which  are  only  to  be 
found  in  full  perfection  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  along 
the  Riviera,  or  at  the  sheltered  spots  of  the  Adriatic,  at 
Abbazia,  Lussin  Piccolo,  and  Ragusa.  The  exclusion  of 
harsh  winds  is  combined  in  all  these  places  with  the  charm 
of  a  more  varied  flora,  enriched  by  species  which  cannot 
endure  the  harder  winters  of  the  continental  climate. 

Unquestionably  this  mildness  of  climate  has  a  very 
favourable    effect    upon   the   economic    life   of  the  west. 


114  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

The  North  Sea,  whose  shores  are  edged  with  ice  only 
in  the  very  hardest  winters,  and  even  then  mainly  along 
the  most  enclosed  inlets,  has  in  this  respect  immeasurable 
advantages  over  the  Baltic.  The  rivers  of  the  mainland 
are  far  more  liable  to  be  closed  by  ice,  not  only  because 
their  waters  are  fresh,  but  also  because  the  obstruction  by 
ice  of  one  single  spot  suffices  to  hinder  the  navigation  of 
long  lines  of  water.  While  England  and  France  enjoy  in 
normal  years  full  freedom  of  internal  traffic,  in  Germany 
we  find  the  winter  stoppages  of  navigation  growing  more 
and  more  frequent  and  lasting  as  we  go  farther  east. 
Even  on  the  Rhme  ice  appears  regularly,  and  that  not 
merely  in  the  Netherlands,  where  sailing  sledges  have 
been  made  to  fly  over  the  glassy  surface  of  the  ice.  At 
Cologne  the  river  is  reckoned  to  have  ice  upon  it  for  an 
average  period  of  twenty-one  days. 

The  more  easterly  rivers  of  Germany  may  be  expected 
to  be  covered  every  year  by  firm  ice  ;  but  the  times  at 
which  this  sets  in  and  the  period  for  which  it  continues 
are  so  variable,  and  depend  so  much  upon  local  conditions, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  draw  up  comparative  dates  and 
figures,  and  still  more  difficult  to  reconcile  the  demands 
of  commerce,  which  must  have  fixed  times  for  the  fulfil- 
ment of  contracts,  with  the  variable  states  of  the  water- 
ways. Their  usefulness  is  destroyed,  not  only  on  the 
days  when  they  are  coated  with  ice,  which  on  the  Bohe- 
mian Elbe  are  estimated  at  twenty,  at  Magdeburg  twenty- 
four,  on  the  Silesian  Oder  thirty,  at  Warsaw  sixty,  and 
at  Tilsit  ninety-four,  but  for  the  whole  period  between 
the  first  appearance  and  the  final  disappearance  of  ice 
from  the  river.  The  average  duration  of  this  period  on 
the  Upper  Elbe  and  Oder  is  some  eighty  days,  in  Pome- 
rania  nearly  loo,  and  at  Tilsit,  according  to  the  observa- 
tions of  many  years,  134.  Sometimes  dangers  arise  from 
the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  the  upper  reaches  of  north- 
ward flowing  rivers,  while  the  lower  reaches  are  still 
blocked.  On  the  Vistula,  in  particular,  very  severe  and 
dangerous  floods  often  result  from  this  cause.  On  the 
Danube,  whose  mouth  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  that  of 


CLIMATE  115 

the  Po,  and  its  Bulgarian  reaches  in  the  same  latitude  as 
the  Arno,  this  possibility  might  naturally  be  supposed  im- 
probable. But  it  is  precisely  in  the  lowest  reaches  that 
the  ice  is  most  apt  to  form,  and  the  mean  duration  of  it 
is  set  at  thirty-seven  days ;  for  forty  years  the  Danube 
has  only  been  entirely  open  in  eight  winters,  and  was 
once  blocked  for  ninety-four  days.  The  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  coldest  month  on  the  Sulina  estuary 
(27°  F.)  corresponds  with  that  of  Trondhjem  and  Bodo 
(Lat.  6f). 

The  course  of  the  isothermal  lines  for  January  runs 
S.S.E.,  while  that  for  July  crosses  at  a  right  angle  and  runs 
E.N.E.,  thus  rising  to  higher  latitudes  in  the  interior  of 
the  continent.  The  same  course  is  followed  within  cer- 
tain limits,  imposed  by  the  severe  winter  cold  of  the  east 
and  the  consequent  shortening  of  the  period  of  vegetation, 
by  the  line  of  growth  of  many  plants,  and  particularly  of 
cultivated  produce  requiring  a  high  point  of  summer  heat 
to  bring  the  fruits  to  maturity.  The  best  instance  is 
furnished  by  the  grape.  Towards  the  ocean  it  ripens  as  far 
as  the  south  of  Brittany  (47!°),  and  thence  north-eastward 
to  Liege  and  Bonn  (50.43°) ;  a  few  outposts  on  the 
Werra  and  Saale  extend  above  51°  ;  and  it  reaches  its 
nearest  to  the  Pole  at  Bomst  on  the  Obra  (52°  10'). 
Up  to  this  point  the  limit  of  the  vine  agrees  very 
decidedly  with  the  July  isothermal  line  of  66°  P.,  but 
now  towards  the  interior  of  Eastern  Europe  it  ceases 
to  rise  with  this  line,  and  being  pushed  back  by  the 
severity  and  the  occasional  length  of  the  winter,  turns 
suddenly  towards  the  south  and  south-east.  The  extreme 
line  of  cultivation  for  maize  approximately  accompanies 
that  of  the  vine  from  Brittany  to  the  province  of  Posen, 
but  is  not  compelled  to  retreat  so  far  southward  in  the 
east,  because  the  winter  cold  does  not  affect  this  purely 
summer  crop.  Thus  the  high  summer  temperature  of 
the  continental  climate  assures  to  its  domain  conditions 
particularly  favourable  to  the  ripening  of  summer  crops. 
Especially  high  requirements  in  the  matter  of  warmth 
are  met  by  two  continental  countries,  Hungary  and 
9 


ii6  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Roumania,  in  which  the  mean  day  temperature  of  a  hot 
season  lasting  two  or  three  months  is  68°  F.  Only 
one  district  occupies  a  worse  position  in  regard  to  the 
pursuit  and  the  success  of  agriculture  than  might  be 
expected  from  its  geographical  latitude.  This  is  the 
district  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  where  a  most  un- 
genial  spring  delays  considerably  the  awakening  of 
vegetation. 

In  general,  however,  the  climatic  influence  of  the  ocean 
prevails  in  Central  Europe,  for  westerly  winds  are  the 
most  numerous  and  the  most  powerful,  since  the  region 
lies  south  of  the  lines  along  which  most  of  the  barometric 
depressions  pursue  their  north-eastern  or  eastern  course. 

Mountain  walls  form  a  protection  against  strong 
winds,  but  only  for  plains  that  are  not  very  extensive. 
The  lowland  of  the  Upper  Rhine  and  the  basin  of  Bohemia 
feel  the  benefit  of  their  embracing  mountains.  The  flat 
plains  of  Hungary,  however,  are  so  large  as  to  become  a 
suitable  arena  for  the  gambols  of  very  whirlwinds,  which 
sport  so  wildly  with  the  snow  of  winter  and  the  dust  of 
summer,  as  to  offer  a  foretaste  of  the  storms  of  the  Pontic 
steppes.  The  east  of  Roumania,  indeed,  actually  falls 
under  the  sway  of  these  storms.  The  marked  prevalence 
of  north-east  winds  at  Sulina  and  Bucharest  occurs  chiefiy 
in  the  summer,  and  is  then  connected  with  the  system  of 
winds  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  ;  the  tail  of  the  north- 
east trade  wind,  which  sets  the  air  above  it  moving  towards 
the  hot  African  deserts,  extends  beyond  the  45th  parallel 
of  latitude.  But  even  in  winter  north-east  winds  frequently 
occur  here  as  parts  of  a  cyclone  circling  round  a  baro- 
metric minimum  over  the  Black  Sea.  A  similar  winter 
development  of  an  area  of  low  atmospheric  pressure  over 
the  Adriatic,  amid  colder  surrounding  countries,  occasions 
the  frequent  north-east  winds  of  Istria  and  Dalmatia. 
Their  much  dreaded  violence,  however,  is  caused  by  the 
closed  mountain  walls  of  the  Karst,  which  so  delay  the 
exchange  of  air  between  the  sea  and  the  interior,  that  the 
difference  in  the  temperature  and  density  becomes  very 
great,  and   the   adjustment  only  occurs   with    storm   and 


CLIMATE  117 

violence.  The  streets  of  Trieste  are  swept  by  the  Bora 
with  gusts  of  such  violence,  that  in  open  places  only 
stretched  ropes  can  keep  the  pedestrians  from  being  blown 
down.  This  wind  is  felt  to  be  cuttingly  cold,  yet  in  its 
hasty  descent  from  the  mountains  it  has  been  somewhat 
warmed,  and  is  own  brother  to  the  "  Fohn  "  (violent  south 
wind)  of  the  Alps.  The  latter  is  always  related  to  the 
general  distribution  of  the  atmosphere  throughout  Central 
Europe,  and  rages  suddenly,  dry  and  warm,  through  the 
northern  valleys  of  the  Alps,  at  times  when  the  air  is 
drawn  up  from  them  and  as  it  were  pumped  out  by  a 
space  of  more  rarefied  air — a  passing  depression — to  the 
north.  The  Alps,  the  Karst,  and  the  Southern  Carpathians 
together  often  form  a  mighty  barrier  dividing  two  different 
tracts  of  weather.  If  they  divide  a  region  of  high  atmos- 
pheric pressure  from  a  depression,  the  atmosphere  will 
be  set  in  motion  in  a  slanting  course  over  the  ridge  and 
will  descend  rapidly  to  the  area  of  less  density.  But  if 
a  tract  of  high  atmospheric  pressure  lies  above  their 
ridges,  dividing  two  regions  in  which  cyclones  move  and 
prevail,  then  there  will  be  calm  in  the  valleys  among  the 
mountains,  accompanied  by  fine  weather,  but  often  in 
winter-time  also  by  very  severe  cold. 

The  important  influence  of  the  superficial  confor- 
mation of  the  land  is  even  more  immediately  perceptible 
in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  moisture.  Every  rain- 
chart  is  closely  related  to  a  relief-map.  The  mountains 
compel  currents  of  air  to  rise,  to  be  chilled,  and  to 
condense  their  vapour,  but  they  obtain  much  moisture 
only  if  the  air  has  previously  collected  much  in 
the  places  of  its  origin.  Thus  the  ocean  remains, 
under  all  circumstances,  the  first  source  of  rain,  and 
the  fact  that  the  prevalent  winds  are  those  blowing  off 
it  is  of  importance  to  Central  Europe.  If  we  could 
ascend  in  a  balloon  to  a  height  from  which  the  whole 
of  Central  Europe  would  be  surveyed  at  one  glance,  the 
veils  of  mist  spreading  over  it  and  thickening  towards 
the  north-west  would  emphatically  show  us  how  important 
is  the  part  played  by  the  ocean  as  parent  of  our  streams 


ii8 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


CLIMATE 


119 


M 


v2 


I20  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

and  rivers.  Exclusive  of  mountain  tops,  we  should  see 
but  one  district — on  the  North  Sea — where  about  75  per 
cent,  of  the  sky  area  appeared  to  be  overcast.  The 
clearest  skies  in  all  Central  Europe,  with  only  40  per  cent, 
of  cloud,  would  lie  over  the  southern  islands  of  Dalmatia, 
the  coastal  strip  of  Ragusa,  and  some  considerable 
stretches  of  the  Hungarian  plain.  To  these  sunny  areas 
seem  to  succeed  next  certain  Alpine  valleys,  but  the 
apparent  freedom  of  these  from  cloud  is  mainly  due  to 
the  enclosing  mountains,  which  conceal  from  the  spec- 
tator the  lower,  more  cloudy  sky  towards  the  horizon. 
Modern  observers  have  taken  the  more  advantageous 
course  of  measuring  not  the  total  area  of  sky  overcast 
with  cloud,  but  the  more  important  duration  of  sunshine. 
Among  the  stations  of  Central  Europe  where  such  observa- 
tions are  made,  the  widest  difference  is  between  Hamburg 
with  1236  hours  of  sunshine  in  the  year,  and  Pola  with 
2546  (three  or  four  hours,  and  seven  hours  per  diem). 

The  dull  cloudiness  of  the  North  Sea,  however, 
and  the  clear  brilliance  of  the  Adriatic  heaven  permit 
no  conclusions  as  to  the  amount  of  rainfall,  for  the 
very  heaviest  rain-storms  of  the  continent  occur  pre- 
cisely on  the  north-east  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  which  rises 
precipitously  from  a  warm  sea  to  rugged  heights.  This 
fact  was  noted  only  a  decade  ago,  when  observatories  were 
placed  upon  the  heights,  whose  abrupt  walls — like  those 
of  an  Alpine  lake — stand  around  the  Bocche  di  Cattaro. 
The  capital  of  Montenegro,  Cettinje,  was  found  to  have 
an  annual  rainfall  of  115  inches,  and  the  Dalmatian 
village  of  Tserkvitse  (3445  feet  high)  of  199.  That  this 
almost  tropical  effusion  of  rain  is  not  solely  due  to  the 
local  influence  of  a  nook  amid  high  mountains  is  shown 
by  observations  of  the  country  behind  the  Quarnero,  taken 
from  Hermsburg  on  the  Schneeberg,  in  Carniola.  There, 
too,  at  a  height  of  3272  feet,  125  inches  of  rain  were 
measured,  while  in  the  Alps  only  a  few  stations  show  a 
fall  of  more  than  80,  and  the  rainiest  spots  of  the  Central 
German  mountains  attain  only  40  to  60  inches.  All  these 
figures  stand  far  higher  than  those  which  apply  to  low- 


CLIMATE  121 

lying  areas  ;  these  diminish  south-eastwards  from  about 
27  inches  in  the  North  Sea  region  to  17  on  the 
estuary  of  the  Danube.  Local  minima  of  rainfall  occur 
in  the  interior  of  enclosed  basins  surrounded  by  mountains, 
such  as  the  Valais,  the  Upper  Rhine  Valley,  the  heart  of 
Bohemia,  the  south  of  Moravia,  and  Hungary;  also  under 
the  lee  of  some  single  mountain  block — the  plains  of 
Magdeburg,  behind  the  Hartz  Mountains,  for  instance. 

The  coast  of  the  Adriatic  is  the  only  region  belonging 
to  the  zone  of  summers  with  little  rain,  in  which  many 
sorts  of  cultivation  can  only  be  carried  on  in  the  hot 
season  by  means  of  artificial  irrigation.  All  the  other 
countries  of  Central  Europe  have  rains  at  all  seasons,  and 
it  is  precisely  in  the  summer  that  most  of  them  have  their 
highest  rainfall,  this  maximum  being  more  distinctly  marked 
in  the  interior  than  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea.  Con- 
tinual rains  sometimes  destroy  the  finest  hopes  of  harvest. 
Only  the  south-east,  the  lowlands  of  the  Danube  in  Hun- 
gary and  Roumania,  are  free  from  this  peril,  and  they 
are  exposed  to  the  contrary  danger  of  drought.  Often, 
in  July  and  August,  when  clouds  gather  that  promise 
rain,  they  pass  off  in  the  dry  glowing  air  that  lies  over 
these  wide  plains,  mocking  the  thirsty  wanderer  with  the 
illusions  of  the  Fata  Morgana.  The  special  climatic  influ- 
ence of  the  plains  so  weakens  the  rainfall  of  the  hottest 
summer-time  in  the  Danubian  region  that  the  maximum  is 
reached  as  early  as  June,  and  the  two  succeeding  months 
are  marked  by  no  further  increase  ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
showers  grow  fewer,  and  only  increase  to  a  second  maxi- 
mum in  September  and  October. 

While  the  heated  surface  of  the  earth  here  causes  a 
deviation  from  the  normal  distribution  of  rain  in  Central 
Europe,  a  precisely  contrary  effect  is  produced  in  autumn 
along  the  shores  of  the  ocean.  The  quicker  cooling  of 
the  mainland  in  the  period  succeeding  the  autumnal 
equinoxes  encourages  the  vapours  brought  by  mild  winds 
from  the  warmer  sea  to  condense,  and  so  cause  the 
autumn  maximum  of  rainfall  that  occurs  in  the  parts  of 
Europe  adjoining  the  ocean.     This  autumnal  maximum 


122  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

is  most  completely  marked  in  Western  France  and  the 
British  Islands.  But  the  first  stages  of  its  development 
begin  on  the  German  shores  of  the  North  Sea  and  in  the 
Netherlands. 

A  special  position  in  regard  to  the  periodic  distribu- 
tion of  rainfall  is  occupied  by  the  mountains.  In  summer, 
indeed,  they  are  often  washed  by  mighty  downpourings, 
which  sometimes  rise  to  such  violence  that  the  rivers 
become  dangerously  swollen,  even  far  out  in  the  plain. 
But  on  the  whole,  the  considerable  quantities  of  rain 
received  by  the  mountains  show  no  such  marked  concen- 
tration of  the  maximum  into  the  summer  as  is  the  case  in 
the  plains,  but  rather  an  inclination  towards  more  regu- 
larity of  distribution,  and,  in  particular,  towards  a  richer 
abundance  in  winter.  The  snow  never  fails  to  appear, 
turning  the  ground  of  the  forest  into  a  highway  where 
the  sledges  move  freely  and  carry  wood  either  to  the 
great  smooth  roadway  or  to  the  rivers.  Snow-fields,. 
too,  saturate  the  earth  with  moisture  and  feed  sources 
and  brooks.  The  rivers  of  Alpine  districts  enjoy  their 
fullest  supply  from  the  glaciers  in  the  height  of  summer, 
at  the  very  time  when  increased  evaporation  and  the 
consumption  of  water  by  vegetation  leave  other  rivers 
poor  and  weak.  Fed  by  the  melting  waters  of  garnered 
snow  and  ice,  they  swell  to  fullest  abundance,  and  offer 
an  increased  power  for  the  service  of  labour  and  traffic. 

One  point  at  which  this  advantage  of  the  Alpine  rivers 
is  particularly  noticeable  is  at  the  junction  of  the  Iller  at 
Ulm.  The  clear  dark-coloured  Danube  emerges  in  quiet 
and  modest  cheerfulness  from  the  Jura  ;  only  after  its 
union  with  the  Iller  from  the  Alps  does  it  become  a  river. 
The  latter  brings,  in  summer  especially,  the  far  stronger 
volume  of  water,  yet  the  basin  from  which  it  gathers 
its  store  is  not  half  so  large  as  that  of  the  Upper 
Danube.  As  the  Danube  is  far  surpassed  in  relative 
volume  by  the  Alpine  rivers,  so  in  turn  it  far  surpasses 
the  Elbe.  Against  the  950  cubic  yards  carried  past 
Passau  in  a  second  by  the  Danube,  the  Elbe  at  the  point 
where  it  comes  out  of  Bohemia,  though  it  has  behind  it 


CLIMATE  123 

a  somewhat  larger  basin,  can  set  only  390.  The  mighty 
volume  of  water  carried  by  the  Rhone  from  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  (330  cubic  yards  per  second)  offers  in  Switzer- 
land no  other  waterway  than  the  local  one  of  the  lake's 
surface.  More  important  are  the  masses  of  water  carried 
by  the  Rhine  into  the  Netherlands  (3270  cubic  yards  per 
second)  and  by  the  Danube  into  the  Black  Sea  (10,470 
cubic  yards).  These  quantities  bear  impressive  witness  to 
what  the  atmosphere  can  do  in  despite  of  the  powers  of 
the  earth.  Lands  divided  by  rising  barriers  of  mountain 
are  linked  together  in  the  bonds  of  intimate  common  life 
by  the  ribbons  of  the  green  Rhine  and  the  blue  Danube. 

Note  on  Authorities. — A  classical  account  of  the  climate  of  Central 
Europe  is  furnished  by  Vols.  I.  and  III.  of  J.  Hann's  Handbuch  der 
Klimatologie. 

The  climatic  maps  in  Berghaus's  Physical  Atlas,  III.,  1887,  are  by 
the  same  author. 

The  map  of  average  clouding  (Fig,  20)  is  taken  from  Elfert  (Peter- 
mann's  Mitteilungen,  1890);  that  representing  the  rainfall  (Fig.  21)  has- 
been  compiled  from  various  sources  (Hann,  Supan,  Angot). 

The  rivers  of  Germany  are  described  in  monumental  official  mono- 
graphs. 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE   PEOPLES 

We  must  rest  contented  with  twenty  centuries  as  the 
period  during  which  the  movements  of  population  in 
Central  Europe  can  be  known  with  certainty.  The 
obscurity  of  remoter  days  is  illuminated  only  by  archae- 
ological discoveries  that  go  back  more  and  more  faintly  to 
the  epoch — perhaps  two  hundred  centuries  ago — in  which 
the  ice  of  Scandinavia  and  the  Alps,  making  its  last  great 
advance,  narrowed  the  domain  in  which  the  earliest  trace- 
able inhabitants  of  Central  Europe  were  struggling,  aided 
by  their  instruments  of  stone  and  bone,  to  maintain  a 
scanty  existence. 

The  first  wave  of  population  whose  westward  course 
has  left  traces  enabling  us  to  follow  it  with  approximate 
certainty  was  Celtic.  It  has  left  behind  it  in  the  district 
of  the  Danube  and  in  South  and  West  Germany  an  un- 
mistakable trail  of  geographical  names.  The  rivers  Danu- 
vius  and  Rhenus  and  most  of  their  tributaries  bear  names 
of  Celtic  origin  ;  and  the  words  of  Tacitus  are  still  appli- 
cable to  the  home  of  the  great  race  of  the  Boji :  "The 
name  Boihemum  (home  of  the  Boji,  Bohemia)  still  con- 
tinues to  exist  and  to  denote  the  former  history  of  the 
country  although  its  inhabitants  have  changed,"  This 
name  of  the  Boji  was  indeed  so  persistent  that  it  clung 
even  to  the  latest  of  the  Germanic  races  that  came  out  of 
this  district :  the  Bajuvari  (Bavarians).  The  Elbe  (Albis) 
and  the  Oder  (Viaduas),  on  the  other  hand,  and  the  Havel 
(Habula)  and  the  Spree,  which  lie  between  them,  have 
German  names ;  they  mark  the  earliest  settlements  from 
which  the  Germani  gradually  spread  over  the  whole  of 
Central  Europe.      Previous  even  to  the  year  i8o  B.C.  the 


THE   PEOPLES 


125 


Bastarni — the  first  of  the  Germani  who  obtained  access  to 
the  Mediterranean — had  appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Danube  ;  and  before  that  century  closed  Cimbri  and 
Teutons  were  pressing  down  from  the  shores  of  the  North 
Sea  and  crossing  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Alps.  From 
the  time  of  their  first  steps  towards  the  subjugation  of 
Gaul,  the  Romans  were  always  making  endeavours  to  pen 


Fig.  22. — Celtic  River  Names  in  Germany. 


in  the  advancing  Germani  behind  the  Rhine.  In  the  time 
of  Tacitus,  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  Vistula  were 
reckoned  as  the  approximate  boundaries  of  the  Germani. 
The  future  inheritors,  however,  of  their  borderlands  were 
already  established  on  their  east :  the  Aestii  in  the  amber- 
land  and  the  parts  east  of  it  ;  and  the  Venedae,  the  fore- 
most of  the  Slavonic  races,  to  the  south  of  them,  east  of 
the  Vistula. 


126 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


The  Roman  Empire  was  successful  for  more  than 
three  centuries  in  opposing  a  firm  barrier  to  the 
advance  of  the  Germanic  tribes,  although  the  position 
of  it  did  not  always  remain  quite  the  same.  When 
once  the  Romans  had  carried  their  conquest  across  the 
Alps,  which  had  so  long  been  regarded  as  a  barrier, 
the  extreme  length  of  the  Empire's  northern  border 
was  felt  to  be  a  burden.  Strong  rulers  aimed  to 
shorten  the  boundary  line  by  carrying  it  forward  to 
the    Elbe   and   to    the  outer    edge   of    the    mountains    of 


Fig.  23. — Advance  of  the  Romans  into  Central  Europe. 


Central  Europe.  Finally,  in  the  long-run,  the  Romans 
continued  to  hold  only  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Danube,  and 
also,  for  a  considerable  period,  the  angle  of  country 
lying  between  their  upper  reaches.  There  the  most 
smiling  districts  of  Germany  invited  the  Romans,  and  the 
peoples  protected  by  them,  to  make  permanent  settle- 
ments. The  course  of  the  Main,  running  northward  at 
the  western  end  of  the  Spessart,  was  the  natural  support 
of  the  frontier  line,  which,  enclosing  the  Wetterau  and 
the  Rheingau,  passed  over  the  heights  of  the  Taunus 
and  the  western  edge  of  the  Westerwald,  and  ended  on 
the     border    of    the     provinces     of     Upper     and    Lower 


THE   PEOPLES  127 

Germania.  In  the  other  direction,  it  continued  south- 
ward for  fifty  miles  in  a  line  so  absolutely  straight  as  to 
amaze  modern  surveyors,  to  Lorch  near  the  Hohen- 
staufen.  At  this  point  the  frontiers  of  Upper  Ger- 
mania and  Rhaetia  met  in  a  right  angle  that  seemed  like 
a  repetition  of  the  bend  of  the  Rhine  at  Basle,  and  the 
frontier  of  Rhaetia  ran  north-eastward  in  front  of  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Swabian  Jura  through  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Ries,  the  name  of  which  recalls  that  it  once 


—    Bounaary  ¥y// 
w.     Camps 


Fig.  24. — The  Roman  Limes  of  Germania  and  Raetia. 

belonged  to  Rhastia,  then  across  the  tableland  of  the 
Franconian  Jura,  intersected  by  the  Altmiihl,  and  so 
nearly  to  Kelheim  on  the  Danube.  This  frontier  (337 
miles  long)  was  not  a  military  position  ;  but  it  was  the  real 
boundary  sharply  marked,  and  its  protection  was  facilitated 
by  the  construction  of  a  wall  and  ditch,  which  could  be 
adequately  guarded  by  small  forces  in  each  of  the  camps 
and  towers  that  were  established  at  intervals  of  some 
ten  miles.  Vespasian  fixed  this  line  of  border,  which 
was  established  and  maintained  by  his  successors  until 
the    year    253.      It    has  been   thoroughly   elucidated   by 


T28  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

modern  investigations,  while  the  so-called  Wall  of  Trajan, 
on  the  isthmus  of  the  Dobruja,  remains  to  be  examined  in 
the  future. 

The  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  Central 
Europe  are  of  importance  in  the  history  of  its  civi- 
lisation, for  the  ineffaceable  impress  of  Roman  civilisa- 
tion and  Roman  institutions  was  not  bound  up  with 
the  continuance  of  Roman  nationality.  In  regard  to 
Central  Europe,  indeed,  the  observer  is  tempted  to 
maintain  the  direct  contrary.  Even  when  we  leave  the 
regions  of  great  Romanic  populations  in  Western  and 
Southern  Europe,  which  still  extend  over  considerable 
areas  in  Belgium,  Lorraine,  West  Switzerland,  Ticino,  and 
South  Tyrol,  we  find  the  Romance  idiom  persisting  in 
connection  with  the  retired  life  of  mountain  districts  that 
lie  aside  from  the  great  currents  of  population  and 
social  life.  This  is  plainly  perceptible  in  the  Romansh 
valleys  of  the  Orisons,  South  Tyrol,  and  Friuli.  In  the 
case  of  the  Roumanians,  too,  the  home  in  which  they 
have  maintained  their  tongue  throughout  a  thousand 
and  a  half-thousand  of  stormy  years,  was  not  the  fertile 
expanse  of  plains,  lying  in  a  significant  position  inter- 
nationally, wherein  they  have  now  grown  up  to  be  a  great 
nation  and  a  highly  important  state.  The  Roumanians 
regard  Transylvania,  the  centre  of  the  modern  expansion, 
as  their  original  home  ;  the  Magyars,  on  the  other  hand, 
maintain  that  they  themselves  were  the  earlier  possessors 
of  Transylvania.  In  the  comparative  absence  of  historical 
records,  the  point  can  only  be  decided  by  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  language,  and  impartial  philologists 
conclude  from  slight  indications  that  the  Roumanian 
tongue  grew  up  in  the  Balkan  countries.  The  Romanised 
population  of  those  countries,  strengthened  by  the  im- 
migration of  Roman  provincial  subjects  who  crossed  to 
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube  when  Dacia  (Transylvania) 
was  evacuated,  would  appear  not  to  have  been  completely 
destroyed  by  the  foreign  elements  pouring  in  upon  it. 
The  Valachs  of  the  Pindus  and  of  some  communes  of  Istria 
on  Monte  Maggiore  (numbering  about  2500  persons)  and 


THE   PEOPLES  129 

the  Valachs  of  Eastern  Moravia — who,  however,  have  long 
since  practically  become  Slavonic — form  the  outlying 
points  that  mark  those  sporadic  settlements  of  the  Rou- 
manian race  by  which  most  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
and  the  whole  curve  of  the  Carpathians  were  occupied. 
The  period  at  which  the  Roumanians  increased  on  the 
north  of  the  Danube  and  in  the  Carpathians  is  uncertain, 
but  assuredly  they  did  not  come  thither  at  so  late  a  date 
as  the  Magyars  would  like  to  beUeve.  As  early  as  11 64 
they  were  established  near  to  the  frontier  of  Galicia, 
and  during  the  succeeding  centuries  took  a  considerable 
share  in  colonising  that  land.  At  the  present  day 
they  occupy  a  compact  country  reaching  northward 
from  the  Lower  Danube  and  the  Dniester  as  far  as  the 
Bukovina  and  the  Marmarosh,  and  westward  beyond  the 
edge  of  the  Transylvanian  mountain  district  towards 
Grosswardein  and  Temeshvar. 

The  movements  of  population  out  of  which  this  race 
has  now  emerged  again  disturbed  the  racial  boundaries 
in  the  north  of  Central  Europe,  and  with  lasting  results. 
In  the  course  of  the  great  migration,  Germanic  tribes 
were  scattered  over  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  and 
even  over  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
While  the  wandering  peoples,  whose  military  fame  had 
filled  the  world,  became  gradually  Romanised  in  foreign 
lands,  the  mother  country  had  grown  smaller  and  smaller. 
When  the  conquests  of  the  Franks,  which  had  already 
extended  to  the  ocean,  were  turned  against  their  blood 
relations  on  the  east,  and  when,  one  after  another,  the 
Alemanni,  Thuringians,  Bajuvars,  and  Saxons  had  found 
themselves  obliged  to  submit  to  their  superior  might,  the 
invaders  came  upon  Slavonic  peoples  in  the  very  midst  of 
ancient  Germania,  on  the  Upper  Main  and  the  Saale. 
These  peoples  had  possessed  themselves  of  the  whole 
coast  of  the  Baltic  from  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  to  the 
peninsula  of  Wagrien  and  the  inlet  of  Kiel,  where  they 
were  immediate  neighbours  of  the  Danes.  When  we 
reflect  that  the  modern  development  of  French  nationality 
was    already    beginning    to    take    shape    in    the   west    of 


I30  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

"  Francia,"  and  that  purely  German  territory  did  not  every- 
where touch  the  western  border  of  the  Rhine  basin,  we 
perceive  that  the  Germany  of  that  period,  in  comparison 
with  ancient  Germany,  had  not  only  been  pushed  towards 
the  south-west,  but  had  also,  notwithstanding  the  addition 
of  the  Alpine  foreland  and  a  part  of  the  Alps,  suffered 
considerable  diminution  ;  it  comprised  indeed  only  about 
three-fifths  of  its  former  extent.  The  recovery  of  the 
lands  lost  on  the  east  begins  with  Charlemagne,  and  for 
a  long  time  proceeds  but  slowly.  Not  until  the  twelfth 
century  did  the  tide  of  conquest  quicken  ;  then  Mecklen- 
burg became  German,  and  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg  and 
the  Mark  of  Meissen  rose  into  prosperity.  The  most  im- 
portant acquisitions  of  the  thirteenth  century  were  Prussia, 
conquered  by  the  Teutonic  Order,  and  Silesia,  peacefully 
occupied  by  German  peasants  and  towns  under  German 
law.  At  the  same  time  German  colonisation  in  Bohemia 
proceeded  through  the  wide  frontier  forests,  which  had 
not  up  to  that  time  been  touched,  while  in  Southern 
Moravia  German  settlers  began  to  make  clearances  in  the 
great  woodlands  which  had  till  then  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Ostmark,  the  Eastern  Mark  or  German 
border  country  along  the  Danube.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  Hungarian  invasions,  this  Mark  had  from  the 
eleventh  to  the  thirteenth  century  been  making  progress 
under  strong  rulers.  Within  the  Eastern  Alps,  too,  the 
Bavarian  tribes  had  made  a  successful  advance,  driving 
back  the  Slavs.  These  at  one  time  had  come  up  to  the 
sources  of  the  Drave  and  into  the  valleys  of  the  Glockner 
and  Venediger  groups,  but  they  now  retired  into  the 
main  basin  of  Carinthia.  Not  only  the  whole  district  of 
the  Drave,  but  also  that  of  the  Mur  and  Miirz  up  to  the 
Semmering,  is  full  of  Slavonic  place-names  which  testify 
•  to  the  size  of  the  field  here  filled  by  German  colonising 
activity. 

What,  it  may  be  asked,  were  the  initiating  forces  that 
led  to  this  vast  movement  of  the  Germans  towards  the 
east  ?  Was  this  movement  due  to  a  deliberate  far-seeing 
policy  of  the  German   Emperors  ?     By  no  means.     The 


GMMI'MAIa    E¥; 


Xb«  £dmlT3i>^  Gvo^a^huid  ^Mitstcttc 


>PE  -  ETHNOGRAPHICAL 


THE    PEOPLES  131 

German  advance  was  often  quickened  by  the  fact  that  it 
coincided  with  the  advance  of  Christendom.  Many  in- 
vasions assumed  the  character  of  crusades,  and  even  more 
powerful  was  the  persevering  support  of  ecclesiastical 
organisation,  and  the  progress  of  German  bishoprics  and 
German  convents  which  brought  with  them  conversion, 
intellectual  leading,  and  social  improvement.  The  per- 
manent results,  however,  of  all  this  activity  were  depen- 
dent even  more  upon  the  important  fact  that,  while  the 
East  was  in  every  respect  backward,  the  German  race  was 
at  that  time  peculiarly  fitted  to  send  thither  not  merely 
valuable  elements  of  a  superior  civilisation,  but  also  many 
sturdy  colonists  who  would  carry  on  active  progress.  The 
Germans  had  multiplied  very  rapidly,  and  in  every  branch 
of  industry  were  incontestably  superior,  excelling  in 
agriculture  as  well  as  in  manufacture  and  mining,  in 
commerce  as  well  as  in  seamanship.  The  Slavonic  rulers 
saw  with  pleasure  great  tracts  of  worthless  virgin  forest 
turned  into  productive  land  around  German  villages, 
while  little  towns  with  free  German  institutions,  arose 
among  them  as  centres  of  trade  and  communication. 
They  felt  their  own  power  increased  by  the  addition  of 
actively  producing  and  taxable  subjects,  and  were  eager  to 
lead  German  settlers  into  those  parts  of  their  countries 
which  were  still  but  imperfectly  opened  up. 

The  thirteenth  century  saw  German  colonies  estab- 
lished at  the  foot  of  the  Tatra,  in  the  metalliferous 
mountains  of  Upper  Hungary  and  in  Transylvania. 
The  German  Hanseatic  League,  too,  following  the  lead 
of  Liibeck,  put  forth  mercantile  colonies,  which  held 
unlimited  control  of  the  Baltic  trade,  and  had  a  con- 
siderable share  in  the  traffic  of  the  North  Sea.  The 
great  work  achieved  during  this  period  was  the  re- 
moval of  the  sharp  boundary-line  that  had  previously 
divided  the  German  race  from  its  neighbours  on  the 
east,  and  the  formation  throughout  and  around  the 
territories  of  these  neighbours  of  islands  of  German 
civilisation. 

This  advance  of  the  Germans  continued  until  nearly 


132  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Then  in  Scandi-. 
navian  countries,  as  well  as  in  Lithuania,  Poland,  Bohemia, 
and  Hungary,  a  general  spirit  of  resistance  awoke  among 
the  various  peoples  who,  under  German  teaching,  had 
grown  up  to  a  fuller  self-conscious  life  and  a  more  ambi- 
tious sense  of  nationality.  The  decline  of  the  German 
Empire  deprived  all  the  threatened  outposts,  the  Hanse- 
atic  League  as  well  as  the  Teutonic  Order,  of  the  support 
so  essential  to  them  in  their  hour  of  greatest  need.  The 
weakness  of  the  broken  Empire  allowed  every  shock  to 
existing  arrangements  to  develop  into  a  permanent  loss  of 
German  possessions.  The  advent  of  the  Reformation,  too,, 
brought  with  it  dangers  to  the  existing  boundaries  of  the 
nation.  Nearly  everywhere  it  set  the  Catholic  clergy 
fighting  against  the  Germans  on  behalf  of  alien  tongues 
and  customs.  In  these  circumstances  the  past  five  cen- 
turies have  seen  many  a  district  once  subjugated  to  civilisa- 
tion by  German  industry  overcome  and  destroyed  by  the 
rising  of  foreign  races.  Only  here  and  there  has  the  wise 
activity  of  some  far-seeing  ruler  in  the  last  century  or  so 
called  upon  the  colonising  capacity  of  the  Germans  and 
set  them  to  recover  tracts  of  land  which,  owing  to  pro- 
longed neglect  or  barbarous  devastation,  had  become 
depopulated.  The  district  of  Southern  Hungary,  between 
the  Danube  and  the  mountains  of  Transylvania,  that  was 
torn  from  the  Turks  in  171 8,  and  was  colonised  by  a 
strong  contingent  from  Swabia,  rose  in  the  course  of  the 
eighteenth  century  to  a  degree  of  prosperity  which  it  had 
never  reached  before. 

In  addition  to  external  circumstances  which  combined 
to  impede  the  persistence  of  the  German  tongue  in  regions 
which  it  had  once  conquered,  there  was  a  marked  ten- 
dency in  the  tongue  itself  towards  divergencies  of  develop- 
ment, and  this  also  seriously  weakened  its  position.  A 
High  German  and  a  Low  German  group  of  dialects  are 
distinguishable.  While  the  members  of  the  former  group 
remained  closely  related,  and  while  the  tendency  to  an 
independent  development  of  the  Allemannic  dialect  in 
Switzerland  was  overcome  when  there  was  yet  time  by 


THE    PEOPLES  133 

the  influence  of  the  High  German  written  language,  the 
Low  German  dialects  increased  so  much  in  diversity  that 
before  the  High  German  had  attained  to  a  fully  fixed 
form  they  had  developed  into  practically  separate  lan- 
guages. A  little  to  the  east  of  the  Lower  Rhine  and  the 
Issel  lies  the  boundary  between  the  Lower  Franconian  and 
Lower  Saxon  or  Platt-Deutsch  dialects.  Two  related 
tongues  branched  off  very  early  from  the  Lower  Saxon — 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  which  on  English  soil  became  the 
groundwork  of  the  English  language,  and  the  Frisian. 
The  isolation  in  which  the  Frisians  have  dwelt  from  the 
earliest  times  of  German  history,  along  the  shores  and 
islands  of  the  North  Sea  and  beyond  the  great  marshlands, 
was  especially  favourable  to  an  independent  develop- 
ment of  language.  The  continuance  of  it,  however,  was 
seriously  threatened  by  the  inroads  of  the  sea.  Only 
scattered  areas  of  the  old  Frisian  language  remain, 
and  these  will  gradually  disappear.  To  the  west  of  the 
Zuyder  Zee  Frisian  has  already  died  out  ;  but  to  the  east 
West  Friesland  remains  the  firmest  centre  of  Frisian- 
speaking  population.  In  East  Friesland  and  in  the  Sater- 
land  of  Oldenburg  hardly  2500  persons  now  understand 
the  tongue  of  their  fathers,  but  the  North  Frisian  dialect, 
still  spoken  by  2000  Heligolanders  and  by  nearly  18,000 
inhabitants  of  the  western  islands  and  shores  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  retains  more  vitality. 

Frisian  and  Lower  Saxon  have  had  a  marked  influence 
upon  the  development  of  the  Dutch  language,  the  main 
groundwork  of  which  was  the  Lower  Franconian.  The 
beginnings  of  its  growth  into  an  independent  written 
language  date  back  to  the  thirteenth  century,  but  its 
complete  separation  and  deliberate  employment  were  not 
secured  until  after  the  rising  of  the  Netherlands  against 
the  power  of  Spain.  The  Flemish  tongue,  spoken  by  a 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium, 
has  gradually  won  equal  rights  with  French,  and  the 
Flemish  speech  is  now  once  again  approximating  more 
and  more  closely  to  the  written  Dutch  language,  with 
which,  however,  it  does  not  yet  altogether  coincide. 


134  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

While  in  Holland  and  Flanders  the  sense  of  kindred 
with  the  West  Germans  persists,  the  Danes  of  North 
Schleswig — the  only  place  where  the  soil  of  the  German 
Empire  is  occupied  by  an  outpost  of  Scandinavian  blood 
— stand  out  in  sharp  contradistinction  to  the  Lower 
Saxons.  They  cannot  reconcile  themselves  to  having 
ceased  to  rule  the  duchies.  But  they  are  scarcely  more 
numerous  than  the  Lithuanians  who  continue  to  subsist 
in  East  Prussia,  mainly  in  the  northern  point  of  the 
country  beyond  the  marshes  and  woods  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Pregel.  Since  the  extinction,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  of  the  language  spoken  by  the  original 
Prussians,  these  people  form  the  only  living  branch  in 
Central  Europe  of  the  Aestii,  who  once  ruled  the  country 
up  to  the  Vistula. 

Even  in  Roman  times  the  banks  of  this  river  were 
attained  by  the  foremost  tribes  of  the  great  Slavonic  race. 
The  wall  of  the  Carpathians — that  invaluable  bulwark 
of  Western  Europe — divided  the  Slavonic  hordes  which 
in  the  sixth  century  poured  down  upon  Central  Europe 
into  two  great  streams.  The  more  northerly  spread 
across  the  whole  breadth  of  the  North  German  lowland 
and  sent  detachments  of  Slavonic  population  through 
the  valley  openings  of  the  Western  Carpathians  and 
through  the  Moravian  Gap  into  Moravia  and  Bohemia, 
while  the  southerly — following  the  Avars — pushed  across 
Southern  Hungary  into  the  Eastern  Alps,  occupying  their 
valleys  and  ramifications. 

In  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  it  appeared  as 
though  the  Slavs  of  the  Alps  and  those  of  Bohemia  would 
join  hands,  but  the  valley  of  the  Danube  offered  an  easy 
roadway  for  the  movement  of  the  Bavarians  and  their 
eastern  neighbours,  and  it  proved  impossible  for  a 
permanent  Slavonic  power  to  bar  this  highway.  The 
fates  of  the  Western  and  the  Southern  Slavs  remained 
divided. 

The  Slavs  of  the  North  German  plain  have  mainly 
become  Germanised.  The  great  race  of  the  Wends,  who 
ruled  the   land  between   the  Elbe  and  the  Oder,  has  left 


THE   PEOPLES  135 

but  a  fast-disappearing  remnant  of  its  tongue  along  the 
Spree  between  Bautzen  and  Kottbus.  A  much  larger 
district  remains  in  West  Prussia,  cut  off  from  the  great 
Polish-speaking  districts  by  the  almost  entirely  German 
lowlands  of  the  Vistula,  Brahe,  and  Netze.  The  early 
conversion  of  this  little  country  to  Christianity  preserved 
it  from  the  fate  prepared  by  the  German  Order  for  the 
heathen  Prussians.  Thus  preserved,  the  Slavonic  nation- 
ality gained  strength  by  being  long  connected  with  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  and  now  continues  undiminished  be- 
cause German  influence  is  slight  in  this  country  of  little 
traffic  and  only  small  towns. 

Here  in  West  Prussia,  as  in  the  continuous  district  of 
kindred  speech,  which  includes  the  south  of  East  Prussia 
(Masuria),  the  Kulmerland,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
provinces  of  Posen  and  Upper  Silesia,  the  German  move- 
ment is  arrested.  At  many  points,  indeed,  a  Polish 
advance  has  been  distinctly  perceptible  during  the  last 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  and  will  hardly  be  stopped  by 
the  endeavours  of  the  Government  to  promote  further 
German  colonisation.  The  power  of  resistance  belonging 
to  the  Slavonic  element  of  the  Prussian  kingdom  is 
everywhere  strengthened  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  except  in 
Masuria,  where  there  are  Protestant  Poles.  The  equali- 
sation of  Catholics  and  Protestants,  of  Poles  and  Germans, 
was  not  indeed  quite  just,  but  it  was  simple  and  effectual. 
Every  step  that  favoured  the  extension  of  the  German 
language  was  regarded  with  distrust  as  an  attack  upon 
religion.  That  difficulty,  however,  has  always  existed. 
Others  have  arisen  more  recently  in  districts  impoverished 
and  decayed  under  Polish  rule  from  the  care  for  educa- 
tion and  for  social  progress  which  was  the  duty  of  the 
Government.  Only  under  the  Prussian  supremacy  has 
a  Polish  middle  class  been  called  into  existence  ;  now 
there  are  not  only  artisans  and  shopkeepers,  but  doctors, 
lawyers,  and  journalists,  and  these  men  are  making  the  little 
towns,  the  old  strongholds  of  Teutonism,  into  centres 
of  Polish  propaganda.  The  more  active  this  becomes, 
the  less  is  the  inclination  of  Germans  to  remain  in  this 


136  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

district,  while  the  Poles  are  growing  rapidly.  This 
growth  of  Slavonic  population  is  further  increased  by 
immigration  from  the  east.  Every  spring  brings  whole 
trainloads  of  labourers,  "  Sachsenganger,"  from  the  Polish 
parts  of  Posen  and  Silesia,  and  also  from  the  adjoining 
Russian  provinces,  into  the  "beetroot  country,"  that  is 
to  say,  the  district  of  the  middle  Elbe.  Here  they  help 
to  get  in  the  harvest  of  the  fertile  land  for  the  great 
sugar  industry,  receiving  in  return  a  wage  far  in  excess 
of  what  they  could  earn  at  home,  and  many  remain 
permanently.  Nor  is  the  current  of  Polish  immigration 
to  the  great  industrial  centres  of  the  empire  smaller. 
There  are  places  on  the  Westphalian  coalfields  where 
the  proportion  of  Polish  immigrants  is  as  high  as  15 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  Here,  in  the  densely 
populated  area  of  an  industrial  district,  are  to  be  found 
some  100,000  Poles.  The  gaps  left  in  the  artisan  class 
of  the  eastern  provinces  by  such  emigration  are  inevit- 
ably filled  by  Polish  workmen  called  in  from  Russia  or 
Galicia. 

Economic  conditions  have  thus  brought  about  a 
modern  immigration  of  races  which  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment, although  powerless  to  prevent,  naturally  enough  be- 
holds with  no  satisfaction.  Similarly  in  many  towns  of 
Bohemia  that  were  formerly  purely  German  a  group  of 
Czech  workmen  will  now  be  found,  forming  a  minority 
that  is  rapidly  increasing  and  full  of  demands.  In 
Vienna,  where  there  are  more  than  160,000  Czechs,  they 
have  attained  to  preponderance  in  many  trades.  In  the  in- 
dustrial centres  of  Saxony,  too,  they  are  increasing.  The 
growing  power  of  the  Slavs  in  Bohemia  is,  however, 
mainly  due  to  the  fanatical  energy  of  national  spirit  which 
during  the  last  fifty  years  has  so  penetrated  the  whole 
people  as  to  make  every  nerve  of  their  physical  power 
and  every  pulse  of  their  intellectual  life  subservient  to  the 
advancement  of  the  nation's  strength  and  glory,  neither 
the  rights  of  others  nor  established  tradition  being  allowed 
to  counterbalance.  A  recollection  of  the  freedom  with 
which    they  have    been   permitted   to    pursue    their  ends 


THE    PEOPLES  137 

under  a  German  dynasty  and  in  a  state  comprising  far 
more  Germans  than  Czechs,  and  of  the  great  results  which 
they  have  been  permitted  to  attain,  may  perhaps  keep 
the  pan-Slavist  inclinations  of  the  Czechs  within  bounds. 
How  different  would  have  been  their  fate  if,  instead  of 
being  surrounded  by  Germans,  they  had  ever  had  the 
great  Slavonic  empire  even  for  a  neighbour  ! 

Compare  the  fate  of  the  Poles.  The  district  occupied 
by  their  language  lies  in  a  well-defined  square  between 
the  lakes  of  the  East  Prussian  hill-country  and  the  ridge 
of  the  Carpathians,  the  angles  being  nearly  marked  by 
Birnbaum  (province  of  Posen),  Suwalki  (Lithuania),  the 
Jablunka  Pass,  and  Przemysl.  Lemberg  (Lwow),  the 
capital  of  Galicia,  lies  amid  a  Ruthenian  district,  but 
within  one  of  those  islands  of  language  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  which  along  the  Bug  marks  that  river  as 
an  earlier  and  now  lost  eastern  boundary  of  the  Polish 
nation.  The  upper  and  middle  districts  of  the  Warta  and 
Vistula  are  thus  occupied  almost  completely  by  the 
Polish  nationality.  Any  attempt  to  establish  a  "  national  " 
division  of  the  continent  would  have  to  take  account  of 
Poland,  which  owes  both  her  greatness  and  her  misfor- 
tunes to  her  border  position  between  Eastern  and  Central 
Europe.  It  is  a  fact  of  importance  in  the  history  of  the 
world  that  this  country  belongs  by  religion  to  the  West 
and  not  to  the  East,  and  that  its  whole  past  was  dominated 
by  the  Roman  and  not  by  the  Byzantine  civilisation. 
Even  at  the  present  day  the  Poles  form  a  nation  which 
may  base  hopes  of  a  better  future,  not  only  upon  their 
history  and  upon  powers  that  have  been  preserved,  and 
perhaps  matured  in  hard  trials,  but  also  upon  their 
numbers.  Half  of  them  are  held  down  by  the  iron  hand 
of  Russia.  As  the  soft  earth  rises  beside  a  heavily  built 
dam,  so  on  the  hither  side  of  the  boundary  of  Russia 
the  Polish  people  rebels  against  a  milder  government 
in  Prussia.  The  Austrian  Poles  are  the  most  fortunate. 
They  hold  the  balance  in  the  conflicts  of  other  nation- 
alities, and  require  to  be  paid  for  any  service  to  the 
Government  by  rewards  for  Galicia.     Thus  while  jealously 


138  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

guarding  the  autonomy  of  their  province,  they  exercise 
a  decisive  influence  upon  the  rest  of  the  empire.  It  is 
instructive  to  observe  the  Poles  playing  a  ruling  part  in 
Galicia.  There  the  Ruthenians  (Little  Russians),  who  also 
people  the  north  of  the  Bukovina,  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church  and  bear  the  heavy  yoke  of  Polish  govern- 
ment. 

Very  different  from  the  position  of  the  Poles  in 
Austria  is  that  of  their  neighbours  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Carpathian  ridge,  the  Slovaks  of  Upper  Hungary, 
whose  social  conditions  are  of  the  very  poorest.  Quite 
unlike  German  Austria,  Hungary  is  not  seriously  troubled 
by  the  neighbouring  Slavs  on  both  sides  of  her  territory. 

When  the  Slavs  (Sclavini),  about  the  year  530,  began 
their  advance  towards  the  Balkan  peninsula,  they  were 
established  to  the  north  of  the  Lower  Danube.  How 
long  the  plains  there  and  the  whole  mountain  country  of 
Transylvania  were  occupied  by  a  Slavonic  population  no 
historical  record  exists  to  show.  Numerous  Slavonic 
names  of  rivers  and  places,  however,  bear  witness  to  the 
prolonged  use  of  a  Slavonic  language  in  this  region.  It 
was  only  by  the  development  of  Roumanian  nationality 
and  the  immigration  of  the  Magyars  that  the  broad  belt 
of  population  was  formed  which  now  divides  the  Slavs 
of  the  Alps  from  the  Ruthenians.  In  that  wide  South 
Slavonic  domain  which  extends  from  the  Dobratsh  near 
Villach  to  the  coast  of  Thrace,  and  from  the  innermost 
angle  of  the  Adriatic  to  the  Black  Sea,  the  most  important 
line  of  division  is  that  running  from  Scutari  through 
Nissa  to  Widdin.  This  line  joins  the  two  points  in  the 
water  boundaries,  the  Drave  and  Danube  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  Adriatic  on  the  other,  when  they  cease  to 
remain  parallel,  and  having  followed  a  south-eastward 
direction  relatively  near  to  each  other,  diverge  towards 
east  and  south.  The  division  coincides  with  the  course  of 
a  Roman  road,  the  shortest  highway  from  the  Adriatic 
to  the  Dacian  frontier,  and  along  this  naturally  marked 
connection  the  old  Albanian  stock  advanced  towards 
the  interior,  going  north-eastward  nearly  as  far  as  Nissa. 


THE   PEOPLES  139 

Their  language  is  essentially  the  ancient  Illyrian  altered 
in  form  by  prolonged  Roman  influence  and  long  con- 
tact with  the  Slavs.  Between  this  farthest  outpost  of 
the  Albanians  and  the  highest  spot  in  the  valley  of  the 
Timok  where  Roumanian  is  spoken,  remains  an  isthmus 
on  the  language-chart  which  is  but  some  sixty  miles  wide, 
connecting  the  territories  of  the  Servians  and  Bulgarians. 
The  great  isolated  domain  occupied  by  the  language  of 
the  Servian  races  has  in  its  interior  but  few  districts  with 
remnants  of  German  speech,  and  at  its  edges  only  a 
strip  at  Trieste  and  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Adriatic  of 
that  Italian  civilisation  which  in  the  Dalmatian  towns  is 
overwhelmed  by  the  Slavonic  idiom.  The  lingual  differ- 
ences between  the  Slovenes  in  the  south  of  St\Tia  and 
Carinthia,  and  in  Carniola,  and  the  Croats  and  Ser\ians 
(to  whom  the  Montenegrins  belong)  are  less  important 
than  the  religious  differences  which  make  a  division — 
often  unfriendly — between  the  Roman  Catholic  Slovenes 
and  Croats,  and  the  Servians  who  belong  to  the  Greek 
confession.  These  latter  are  the  mainstay  of  the  idea  of 
South-Slavonic  unity,  which,  however,  could  only  be 
realised  by  a  complete  revolution  in  the  poUtical  confor- 
mation of  the  continent. 

The  Bulgarian  nation  occupies  an  entirely  indepen- 
dent position,  inhabiting  both  slopes  of  the  Balkans  and 
their  foreland,  but  its  hopes  for  the  future  possession 
of  Macedonia  are  in  direct  opposition  to  those  of  the 
Servians.  The  Bulgarian  name  originally  belonged  to  a 
Finnish  tribe,  which  left  its  home  between  the  Volga  and 
Don  before  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  and  shook  the 
Byzantine  Empire  by  its  attacks.  Being  supported  in 
these  by  Slavonic  races,  the  Bulgarians,  even  at  the 
time  when  they  began  to  found  a  mighty  empire  in  the 
Balkan  countries,  became  gradually  assimilated  to  the 
Slavs.  Their  brilliant  history  seemed  to  be  ended 
when  they  were  brought  under  the  Turkish  yoke.  They 
bore  this  heavy  time  of  tribulation,  however,  without 
yielding. 

The  great   Uralo-Altaic  race  to  which  belonged  the 


I40  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

ancestors  of  the  Bulgarian  people,  has  at  different  times 
exercised  a  profound  influence  upon  the  destinies  of 
Central  Europe.  The  advance  of  the  Huns  gave  the  im- 
petus to  that  great  movement  of  races  with  which  ancient 
history  closes.  The  Avars  took  a  violent  part  in  the  fresh 
conformation  of  Europe  which  marks  the  opening  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  even  in  1241  an  inroad  of  Tartars 
threatened  to  overrun  the  eastern  frontier  countries  of 
Central  Europe,  which  were  then  just  beginning  to  develop 
their  civilisation.  Among  the  peoples  who  resisted  the 
Tartar  incursion  was  a  race  which  had  become  established 
in  Central  Europe,  and  had  there  formed  a  powerful  state, 
the  Magyars,  who  were  akin  to  the  Finns,  but  had  been 
a  little  influenced  by  the  Turks.  As  the  Sarmatian 
Jazyges  had  done  in  ancient,  and  the  Avars  in  mediaeval 
times,  so  the  swarms  of  Hungarian  riders  had  overflowed 
the  lowland  of  the  middle  Danube.  This  district,  which 
is  climatically  an  outpost  of  the  steppe  country  about  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  became  once  more  the  theatre 
of  a  life  native  to  the  steppes.  From  their  new  home  the 
Hungarians  for  centuries  kept  the  lands  west  of  them  in 
terror  by  their  far-reaching  predatory  excursions,  which 
extended  to  the  North  Sea,  to  the  Atlantic,  across  the 
Pyrenees,  and  in  Italy  to  Naples  and  Taranto.  One 
horde  of  riders  completed  a  circuit  of  the  Alps.  Not 
until  the  decisive  victory  of  Otto  the  Great  on  the  Lech 
(in  955)  were  these  raids  brought  to  an  end,  and  the 
Magyars  compelled  to  confine  themselves  to  a  settled 
existence  within  their  lowland.  There  their  power  grew 
by  the  inclusion  of  succeeding  races  from  the  steppes  and 
by  absorption  of  subjugated  national  elements.  A  severe 
crisis  was  caused  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
by  the  Turkish  invasion,  which  seemed  as  if  it  would  gain 
a  firm  foothold.  But  as  soon  as  it  had  been  reconquered 
by  the  Austrian  forces  Hungary  recovered  itself,  and  the 
national  spirit  of  the  Magyars  increased  rapidly.  Since 
1866  they  have  obtained  an  independence  which  they  use 
energetically  to  strengthen  their  own  nationality  at  the 
expense    of   the    other    races    belonging   to    the    empire, 


THE    PEOPLES  141 

although  they  form  not  an  absolute,  but  only  a  relative 
majority.  In  no  other  state  of  Europe  has  the  govern- 
ment been  so  successful,  and  in  no  other  except  Russia 
so  unscrupulous,  in  the  means  by  which  it  has  tried  to 
force  upon  the  other  elements  of  the  population  the  lan- 
guage of  the  dominant  majority. 

In  Hungary  the  fact  stands  out  most  clearly  that  the 
present  conception  of  nationality  is  dominated  by  the 
token  of  language  and  has  little  to  do  with  descent.     The 


Fig.  25. — Diagram  to  show  Nationalities. 

movements  of  population  have  everywhere  brought  together 
racial  elements  of  so  widely  differing  origin  that  very  few 
districts  can  claim  to  have  kept  a  population  which  is 
the  almost  unmingled  offspring  of  a  single  race.  It  is 
possible  that  the  Jews  come  nearest  to  being  able  to 
claim  the  distinction  of  pure  blood.  From  the  western 
districts  of  the  Mediterranean,  over  which  they  had  become 
scattered  during  the  Roman  Empire,  they  came  eastward 
with  western  civilisation.     At   present  the  belt  occupied 


142  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

most  thickly  by  them  Hes  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
Central  Europe.  From  Moldavia,  through  Eastern 
Hungary,  the  Bukovina,  and  Galicia,  to  Russian  Poland, 
stretches  a  connected  tract  in  which  ten  to  fifteen'  per 
cent,  of  the  population  consists  of  Jews.  Here  they  are 
established  as  a  nation,  having  their  own  tongue,  a  dialect 
of  German  with  Jewish  words  and  terms,  and  their  own 
dress.  In  the  Vistula  government  their  numbers  have 
lately  been  increased  by  the  severity  with  which  they 
were  hunted  out  of  interior  Russia,  under  a  decree 
restricting  their  right  of  settlement  to  the  western  depart- 
ments of  the  empire.  Among  the  provinces  of  Germany, 
Posen,  Hesse,  and  Alsace  are  those  in  which  they  are  most 
numerous  ;  and  among  the  towns,  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
in  particular.  They  are  also  relatively  numerous  in  the 
Netherlands. 

The  enormous  variety  of  peoples  united  in  Central 
Europe  need  a  common  tongue  for  mutual  communica- 
tion. German  is  understood  everywhere  from  Galatz, 
Sofia,  Sarayevo,  Trieste,  Geneva,  and  Antwerp  far  into  the 
interior  of  Russia.  Only  the  most  backward  regions  of 
Servia  and  Montenegro  must  be  excepted.  All  the  rest 
of  Central  Europe,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  willingly 
or  unwillingly,  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  German  civilisation. 
Life,  the  inexorable,  pours  water  into  the  wine  of  national 
fanaticism,  and  is  duly  at  hand  to  prevent  its  branches 
from  shooting  to  heaven. 

Note  on  Authorities. — The  ancient  ethnography  was  established  by 
the  admirable  works  of  Zeuss,  1837,  and  Miillenhoff,  1870-1887. 

The  peoples  of  the  present  day  are  pretty  nearly  all  to  be  found  in  the 
Danubian  regions,  and  have  been  excellently  described  by  experts  in 
the  twenty-four  volumes  of  Die  Oesterreich-Ungarische  Motiarchie  in 
Wort  und  Bild,  1884-1902,  which  were  published  at  the  wish  and  with 
the  co-operation  of  the  Crown  Prince  Rudolf. 

Der  Deutsche  Volkstum,  1898,  is  a  work  edited  by  Hans  Meyer  and 
produced  by  ten  learned  men ;  the  vividly  written  geographical  section 
was  prepared  by  A.  KirchhofF. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    STATES 

Central  Europe  contains  a  considerable  number  of 
districts  which,  by  their  conformation  or  their  river 
system,  are  either  so  bound  together  within,  or  so  dis- 
tinctly shut  off  from  without,  as  to  be  adapted  to  become 
the  nuclei  of  states.  The  demands  of  these  natural 
formations  have  sometimes  been  overridden  by  the  arbit- 
rary creations  of  alien  and  conquering  powers  ;  the 
invading  Turks  and  the  French  under  Napoleon  tore 
off  in  wild  greed  whatever  of  Central  Europe  they 
could  snatch  ;  and  the  Roman  Empire,  in  its  day,  con- 
sidered nothing  but  the  securing  of  convenient  boundaries 
for  its  Mediterranean  possessions.  All  of  these  trampled 
under  foot  the  true  political  life  that  was  growing  up  in 
Central  Europe.  Of  all  the  great  conquerors  in  this  part 
of  the  world,  only  one  worked  in  the  direction  of  political 
construction  and  permanent  development — Charlemagne. 

He  forced  the  German  races,  which  had  previously 
been  divided  between  the  Alps  and  the  North  Sea,  into  a 
political  aggregation,  and  this,  after  the  disruption  of  his 
great  dominion,  formed  the  groundwork  of  the  German 
realm.  The  Rhine,  of  which  from  870  onward  the 
whole  basin  belonged  to  this  kingdom,  was  the  natural 
guarantee  of  its  coherence.  The  rapids  at  Bingen, 
however,  which  in  those  days  had  not  been  brought 
into  subjection,  interrupted  the  navigation.  A  cause  of 
still  more  importance  in  perpetuating  the  division  be- 
tween North  and  South  Germany  was  the  old  diversity 
of  race.  The  Saxons,  between  the  Hartz  Mountains 
and  the  North  Sea,  always  submitted  unwillingly  to  a 
king  of  another  race,  and  did  not  give  an  unconditional 


144  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

support  to  kingship  unless  it  was  borne  by  one  of  them- 
selves. While  their  interests  were  involved  in  contact  with 
the  Slavs,  the  Danes,  and  the  sea,  the  Swabians,  in  the 
kindlier  regions  of  South-Western  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land where  traces  of  Roman  civilisation  still  lingered, 
sought  relations  with  Burgundy  and  Italy,  and  found 
gates  of  international  trade  for  themselves  in  the  seaports 
of  those  countries.  The  Franks,  who  dwelt  between  these 
peoples  from  the  Moselle  to  the  Upper  Main,  might  have 
reconciled  their  diverging  interests  had  they  succeeded  in 
gaining  power  enough  to  keep  the  royal  seat  in  their  land. 
But  this  changed  its  place,  being  sometimes  with  them 
and  sometimes  with  the  Saxons  or  the  Swabians,  and 
although  the  choice  and  coronation  of  the  rulers  belonged 
to  Prankish  towns,  Frankfort  and  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the 
mediaeval  German  Empire  entirely  lacked  the  influence 
of  a  capital  city  to  dominate,  unite,  and  bring  into  line 
the  currents  of  national  life.  The  uniting  power  of 
kingship  was  weakened  by  the  lack  of  a  fixed  centre, 
but  even  more  by  the  fact  that  the  highest  aims  of  the 
imperial  policy  did  not  lie  within  the  borders  of  Germany, 
but  in  the  wider  horizon  of  the  conflict  of  the  Empire 
and  the  Papacy.  The  more  distinctly  imperial  policy 
became  riveted  to  Italy,  the  more  certain  was  the  separate 
political  development  of  North  Germany  in  a  course  of 
its  own.  Even  the  destruction  of  the  power  of  Henry 
the  Lion  did  not  put  an  end  to  this  independent  activity 
of  the  north.  The  sea  power  of  the  German  Hanseatic 
League,  and  the  expansion  of  the  Teutonic  Order  as  far  as 
Livonia,  arose  without  help  from  the  supreme  Imperial 
Government.  Later  on,  the  selfish  policy  of  imperial 
dynasties  favoured  the  disintegration  of  the  empire. 

The  Swiss  Confederation  from  the  fourteenth  century 
onward  detached  itself  by  degrees  from  Germany,  and 
even  dared  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  part  of  the  imperial 
territory.  The  delta  of  the  Rhine,  too,  became  less  and 
less  firmly  united  to  it.  It  was  Charles  the  Fifth,  however, 
who  as  heir  of  Charles  the  Bold,  was  the  first  to  reckon 
this  district  as  part  of  his  Spanish  patrimony,  and  in  doing 


THE   STATES  145 

so  to  prepare  for  it  an  entirely  independent  fate.  The 
end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  with  the  constant  friction  between 
nobles  and  towns,  completed  the  political  disintegration  of 
South-Western  Germany,  and  brought  about  that  per- 
nicious array  of  minor  states  that  left  this  region  a  helpless 
prey  to  greedy  neighbours  as  soon  as  their  attacks  should 
be  invited  by  the  interior  decay  of  the  Empire. 

That  condition  was  produced  by  the  Reformation. 
Failing  to  permeate  the  whole  of  Germany,  it  caused  a 
cleavage  of  the  Empire,  and  the  bitterness  of  feeling  grew 
to  such  heights  that  German  aid  helped  foreign  powers  to 
become  masters  of  German  country.  The  Thirty  Years' 
War  destroyed  the  northern  and  western  frontiers  of  the 
Empire.  Only  the  weakness  of  Germany  rendered  pos- 
sible the  artificial  creation  by  Sweden  of  a  great  northern 
power,  which  occupied  not  only  the  most  valuable  tracts 
on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  but  also  the  mouths  of  the 
Elbe  and  the  Weser.  Even  at  the  period  of  this  catas- 
trophe the  north  of  Germany,  on  the  whole,  had  fought  for 
the  Reformation  and  the  south  against  it.  The  subsequent 
course  of  events  favoured  the  development  of  a  duality  of 
political  powers.  While  the  western  frontier  was  but 
weakly  defended  against  the  rapacity  of  Louis  the  Four- 
teenth, Austria  bent  its  whole  strength  to  driving  back  the 
Turks  and  reconquering  Hungary.  The  aspiring  Electo- 
rate of  Brandenburg,  on  the  other  hand,  undertook  the 
protection  of  the  north  and  east,  and  wrested  the  first 
gains  from  Sweden  and  Poland.  The  emancipation  of 
East  Prussia  from  the  suzerainty  of  Poland  gave  to  the 
great  Elector  a  firm  footing  of  power  outside  the  Empire, 
and  to  his  successor  the  foundations  of  kingship.  The 
struggle  of  Prussia  to  attain  a  position  of  equality  with 
Austria  began  with  the  conquest  of  Silesia,  and  was 
further  displayed  in  the  share  taken  in  the  division  of 
Poland.  If  in  the  struggle  against  Napoleon  Austria 
showed  the  more  stubborn  resistance,  in  the  last  fight 
for  freedom  Prussia  did  the  utmost  and  strained  every 
nerve.  In  the  German  Confederation,  whose  thirty-seven 
secondary  and  minor  states  grouped  themselves  in  varymg. 


146  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

political  formations  around  the  two  great  powers,  the 
balance  of  predominance  wavered.  But  Prussia's  claim 
to  the  supremacy  of  the  German  people  was  favoured  by 
the  circumstance  that  in  181 5  it  only  recovered  so  much 
of  its  great  Polish  possessions  as  was  absolutely  indispens- 
able to  the  junction  of  its  eastern  frontier,  and  that  by 
way  of  amends  it  sought  an  equivalent,  partly  in  Saxony, 
partly  along  the  Lower  Rhine  in  the  former  territories  of 
the  spiritual  Electors,  whom  the  Revolution,  which  dug  the 
grave  of  the  old  German  Empire,  had  swept  away. 
Prussia  thus  became  more  German  and  extended  to  the 
threatened  western  frontier  of  Germany.  Nor  was  this 
all.  Enlightened  and  foreseeing,  it  entered,  by  the 
foundation  (in  1833)  of  the  Customs  Union,  upon  the 
path  leading  to  the  economic  union  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  nation.  The  decision,  however,  between  the  "  Greater 
German  "  idea  which  regarded  the  union  of  all  German 
races,  "  Wherever  sounds  the  German  tongue,"  as  the  aim 
and  principle  of  every  future  change,  and  the  "  Lesser 
German  "  idea  of  firm  unity  for  all  Germans  outside  of 
Austria,  could  only  be  reached  by  blood  and  sword.  A 
ground  of  quarrel  arose  between  the  two  great  powers  of 
Germany  over  the  fate  of  the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and 
Holstein  which  they  had  emancipated  from  the  rule  of 
Denmark  in  1864.  Arms  decided  the  question  in  favour 
of  Prussia.  That  Power  now  proceeded  to  the  junction 
of  its  provinces,  which  had  hitherto  been  divided  into  two 
groups.  Some  states  which  had  taken  part  with  the 
enemy  were  incorporated,  and  all  the  twenty-one  states  of 
North  Germany  were  united  into  the  North  German 
Confederation.  As  the  four  southern  states  of  Germany 
were  also  induced  to  enter  into  alliance,  France  found  all 
Germany  except  Austria  united  to  resist  it  in  1870.  The 
reward  of  victory  was  the  recovery  of  Alsace  with  a  part 
of  Lorraine  and  Metz.  The  inspiring  sense  that  at  last  a 
united  national  power,  and  that  alone,  had  succeeded  in 
defending  the  frontier  which  had  so  often  been  swept 
away  by  hostile  attacks,  led  all  those  who  had  participated 
in  the  victory  to  unite  voluntarily  in  forming  the  German 


THE   STATES  147 

Empire  and  raising  the  King  of  Prussia  to  the  position  of 
German  Emperor. 

The  German  Empire  has  natural  and  satisfying  bound- 
aries on  almost  all  sides.  Extended  between  the  Alps  and 
the  North  Sea,  between  the  Bohemian  mountains  and  the 
Baltic,  it  suffices  to  itself,  threatens  no  neighbour,  covets 
no  foreign  territory,  but  is  resolved  to  permit  no  one  to 
lay  hand  upon  its  own. 

On  the  western  side  of  Germany  lie,  like  fragments 
broken  from  the  walls  of  an  old  fortress,  Switzerland, 
Luxemburg,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands.  In  their 
present  form  they  are  all  creations  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

Until  the  French  Revolution  the  Swiss  Confederation 
was  an  alliance  for  mutual  protection  of  small  independent 
states,  an  aristocratic  gradation  of  rights  existing,  not  only 
as  between  the  various  states  but  as  between  the  various 
districts  of  the  separate  states.  This  league  of  North  and 
Central  Switzerland  had  no  fixed  connection  with  the  two 
independent  confederations  of  the  Grisons  and  Valais, 
though  permanent  friendly  relations  subsisted.  The  French 
Revolution  overthrew  these  conditions  and  established  a 
Helvetian  Republic  upon  a  foundation  of  equal  rights. 
The  recovery  of  sovereignty  by  the  cantons,  which  had 
been  effected  within  it,  was  confirmed  in  1815,  and 
Switzerland  received  the  advantage  of  increased  territory 
and  the  guarantee  of  her  neutrality  by  the  great  powers. 
A  democratic  movement,  which  did  not  attain  its  aim 
without  violence,  subsequently  led  to  greater  centralisation. 
Since  1848  Switzerland  has  been  not  a  confederation  of 
states,  but  a  confederated  state. 

More  complex  was  the  evolution  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands,  which  was  constructed  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  out  of  three  territories  swallowed  up  by  the 
revolution  and  incorporated  into  France — the  old  Habs- 
burg  Netherlands,  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands, 
which  had  been  free,  and  the  bishopric  of  Liege.  It 
was  given  to  a  prince  of  Nassau  and  Orange.  The  spirit 
of  the  Vienna  Congress  has  here  left  a  fine  memorial  of 


148  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

itself  in  one  of  the  most  ridiculous  frontier  lines  to  be 
found  on  the  map  of  Europe.  The  frontier  towards 
Rhenish  Prussia  is  not  formed  by  the  Meuse  north  of 
Maaseyk,  but  by  a  line  running  for  more  than  fifty  miles  at 
a  distance  of  from  three  to  five  miles  from  its  right  bank. 
While  neutrality  was  guaranteed  to  these  three  territories, 
the  King  of  the  Netherlands  entered  the  German  Con- 
federation on  account  of  another  part  of  the  domains 
assigned  to  him,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  the 
inheritance  of  which  was  settled  in  the  male  line.  Luxem- 
burg became  a  German  fortress  and  received  a  German 
garrison. 

In  making  this  fresh  political  settlement  the  Powers 
underrated  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  ever  since 
the  taking  of  Antwerp  in  1585,  which  confirmed 
the  Spanish  power  and  the  Catholic  religion  in  the 
south,  leaving  the  Reformed  north  to  pursue  its  free  de- 
velopment alone,  the  two  parts  of  the  Netherlands  had 
had  different  destinies.  Acute  opposition  to  the  Hague 
Government  was  not  slow  to  arise  in  the  Southern 
Netherlands.  Although  the  two  main  currents  of  this 
opposition,  the  Clerical  and  the  Liberal,  were  actuated 
by  very  diverse  motives,  they  made  common  cause 
when  the  revolution  of  Paris  in  1830  gave  them  a 
chance  of  raising  their  banner.  France  gave  them  the 
victory,  and  secured  the  independence  of  the  old  Habs- 
burg  Netherlands  and  the  bishopric  of  Liege  under  the 
name  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  to  which  was  added 
the  greater  part  of  Luxemburg,  and  even  a  number 
of  German  communes  belonging  to  that  state.  The 
neutrality  of  the  newly  formed  state  was  guaranteed  by 
the  Powers.  The  breaking  up  of  the  German  Confedera- 
tion in  1866  brought  to  the  front  the  question  of  the 
future  of  the  remaining  portions  of  Luxemburg.  The 
King  of  Holland  wished  to  sell  Luxemburg  to  France, 
but  a  storm  of  indignation  in  Germany  prevented  this. 
Luxemburg  ceased  to  be  a  German  fortress,  but  remained 
in  the  Customs  Union.  In  1890,  a  queen  succeeded  to 
the  crown  of  Holland  ;  all  connection  with  that  kingdom 


THE   STATES  149 

ceased,  and  a  purely  German  dynasty  came  in.  The 
inhabitants  of  Luxemburg  speak  German,  but  the  official 
tongue  of  the  Government  is  French. 

The  buffer  states  which  a  cautious  diplomacy  has 
placed  between  France  and  Germany  depend  for  their 
existence  not  entirely  upon  the  guarantee  of  the  Powers, 
whose  promise  has  never  yet  been  put  to  any  very  severe 
test,  but  upon  their  own  prosperous  strength.  They 
have  proved  their  claim  to  independence  by  their  own 
successful  labour,  and  have  become  valued  and  indispen- 
sable members  of  the  family  of  Europe's  states. 

On  the  eastern  frontier  of  Germany  things  have  fol- 
lowed a  very  different  course.  The  broad  opening  of 
the  North  German  lowland  towards  the  vast  plains  of  the 
east  has  been  a  source  of  anxiety  as  often  as  the  Slavs 
have  succeeded  in  establishing  a  powerful  state.  The 
growth  of  Poland  under  Jagello's  dynasty,  after  its  union 
with  Lithuania  (1386— 1572),  hemmed  in  the  domain  of  the 
Teutonic  (German)  Order.  East  Prussia  passed  through  this 
period  as  a  Polish  fief  surrounded  by  Polish  territories. 
But  the  more  Poland  extended  its  supremacy,  the  clearer 
became  its  lack  of  fixed  natural  boundaries,  and  the 
greater  the  disproportion  between  the  strength  of  the 
ruling  nation  and  the  number  of  subjects  speaking  other 
tongues.  Only  a  strong  Government  could  have  achieved 
the  task  of  maintaining  a  position  so  threatened.  But  the 
power  of  the  monarchy  diminished  rapidly  from  the  time 
when  it  became  elective.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  Russian  influence  decided  the  selec- 
tion and  the  action  of  the  kings.  No  person  acquainted 
with  history  can  maintain  that  the  downfall  of  Poland 
robbed  the  Central  European  Powers  of  any  protection 
against  the  gigantic  power  of  Russia.  Poland  had  long 
abdicated  that  function.  Although  herself  neutral  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  she  served  as  a  basis  of  the  Russian 
operations.  Immediately  afterwards,  the  influence  of 
Russia  upon  the  internal  troubles  of  Poland  increased  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  subjugation  of  the  entire  country 
by  Russia  seemed  to  be  at  hand.     The  question  for  the 


150  CENTRAL  EUROPE 

German  Powers  was  not  whether  Poland  could  be  pre- 
served or  revived  ;  the  only  choice  before  them  was 
whether  they  would  see  the  country  swallowed  whole  by 
Russia  or  secure  to  themselves  some  part  of  the  expiring 
country's  inheritance.  For  Prussia  that  was  a  question 
of  life  and  death.  If  the  whole  expanse  of  Poland  fell 
gradually  into  the  arms  of  Russia,  if  her  iron  grasp  were 
to  be  laid  upon  all  the  course  of  the  Vistula  and  the 
German  town  of  Dantzig,  then  East  Prussia,  a  province 
which  had  shown  itself  to  be  untenable  in  isolation, 
would  certainly  disappear  into  the  maw  of  the  monster  at 
the  first  opportunity.  The  Russians  had  already  occu- 
pied it  for  four  years  during  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

Frederick  would  have  endangered  the  future  of  his 
own  country  if  he  had  failed  to  seize  the  opportunity 
of  establishing  the  connection  between  his  eastern  marches 
and  Pomerania.  Beyond  this  he  did  not  go.  It  was 
his  successor  who  loaded  the  state  with  too  great  an 
addition  of  Polish  territory,  which  proved  itself  at  the 
first  critical  moment  not  a  support,  but  a  worthless 
burden.  Thus  in  1815  Prussia  finally  withdrew  within 
narrower  bounds,  the  narrowest  indeed  which  would 
suffice  to  secure  the  indispensable  connection  between 
the  Prussian  and  the  Silesian  wings  of  its  territory.  All 
Western  Europe  felt  the  impending  danger  of  seeing 
Russia  pass  beyond  the  meridian  of  Dantzig.  The 
worthlessness  of  the  soothing  concession  that  Poland 
should  be  added  to  the  despotic  empire  as  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy  could  not  for  a  moment  escape  such  a 
statesman  as  Stein.  What  he  foresaw  became  fact  in 
1832.  From  that  time  onward  there  was  no  longer  a 
kingdom  of  Poland,  but  only  a  Government  of  the  Vistula. 

The  possibility,  indeed,  of  being  simultaneously  attacked 
on  both  sides  lays  on  the  German  Empire  the  burden  of 
heavy  military  preparations.  But  as  the  warlike  disposi- 
tions of  its  western  and  eastern  neighbours  grow  and 
become  more  menacing,  so  do  all  its  members  become 
the  more  closely  knit  together.  No  one  can  venture  to 
say  the  same  of  the  German  Empire's  natural  ally,  Austro- 


THE   STATES  151 

Hungary.  The  occupation  of  the  southern  and  of  the 
nortliern  foreland  of  the  Tatra  up  to  the  salt-mines  of 
Wieliczka  and  Bochnia  (in  1769  and  1770)  was  the  first 
step  towards  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  that  event  had 
ominous  consequences  to  the  coherence  and  inner  equili- 
brium of  the  Austrian  state. 

One  of  the  most  essential  causes  tending  to  the  unsatis- 
factory condition  of  the  whole  Austrian  state  is  the  fact, 
that  the  threefold  historical  character  of  the  natural  and 
ethnological  divisions  which  meet  to  the  east  of  the  Jab- 
lunka  Pass  is  not  represented  by  a  corresponding  poli- 
tical trinity,  but  by  a  disproportionate  duality.  To  the 
Hungarian  half  of  the  empire  in  its  vigorous  and  pros- 
perous unity  stands  opposed  a  monstrous  residuum,  with 
economic  powers  diminished  by  sacrifices  for  the  sake  of 
the  Polish  appendages,  and  political  powers  divided  and 
neutralised  by  the  particularist  politics  of  the  Poles. 
These  pursue  the  easy  and  profitable  task  of  encouraging 
dissension  between  the  other  races  and  making  their  own 
profit  out  of  them.  That  is  comprehensible  enough  ;  but 
foreigners  find  it  more  difficult  to  understand  why  it  is  that 
the  German  nationality,  most  threatened  in  the  struggle, 
does  not  hold  together,  and  why  the  German  clericals  come 
to  support  the  Slavs  in  the  repression  of  their  own  nation. 

Hungary  naturally  gains  by  the  political  paralysis  of 
the  Austrian  half  of  the  empire,  or,  to  use  the  official 
designation  for  once,  of  "  the  kingdoms  and  countries  re- 
presented in  the  Imperial  Council."  Thanks  to  the  de- 
liberate and  energetic  action  of  its  statesmen,  that  kingdom 
secured  surprising  advantages  as  far  back  as  1867,  when 
the  "  Ausgleich  "  (compromise)  established  new  political 
life  among  the  peoples  of  the  empire. 

Transleithania,  the  kingdom  beyond  the  Leitha,  was 
acknowledged  for  all  time  as  on  a  full  equality  with  the  rest 
of  the  countries  forming  the  empire,  which  on  their  part 
might  very  well  bear  the  name  of  Cisleithania  if  it  were 
not  that  lands  lying  far  to  the  east  are  most  unnaturally 
reckoned  with  them.  A  crying  contrast  to  this  political 
equality  is  exhibited  by  the  differing  degrees  with  which 


152  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  common  duties  to  the  common  state,  to  the  army,  the 
navy,  and  foreign  poHcy  are  fulfilled. 

The  Magyars  succeeded  without  any  very  serious 
opposition  from  the  other  races  in  getting  into  their  own 
hands  the  direction  of  Hungary's  constitution  and  admini- 
stration, they  having  already  pacified  the  Slavs  of  the 
south  by  a  separate  compact  in  1868.  The  kingdom  of 
Croatia  and  Slavonia — Fiume  excepted — was  to  retain  its 
viceroy  (Banus),  its  diet,  full  autonomy  in  matters  of  re- 
ligion and  education  and  in  some  departments  of  law  and 
administration  ;  above  all,  the  Croatian  language  was  to 
be  retained,  not  only  in  all  the  departments  subject  to  the 
kingdom's  autonomy,  but  also  in  transactions  with  the 
Croatian  sections  of  every  ministerial  department,  and  even 
in  the  speeches  of  Croatian  deputies  to  the  Hungarian 
parliament  when  imperial  questions  were  under  discussion. 
The  name  of  Dalmatia  is  joined  with  that  of  Croatia  and 
Slavonia  in  the  title  of  the  King  of  Hungary.  Its  appear- 
ance is  something  more  than  an  historical  reminiscence. 
The  constitution  of  1867  safeguarded  the  right  of  the 
kingdom  to  demand  the  restoration  of  Dalmatia  and  its 
union  with  Croatia,  but  the  Magyars  have  not  the  slightest 
intention  of  taking  away  those  Slavs  from  Austria  and 
favouring  their  union  with  the  other  Slavs  of  the  south. 

The  question,  however,  of  the  incorporation  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  into  the  empire  by  which  they  were 
occupied  in  1879,  will  certainly  some  day  come  to  the 
front,  and  with  it  their  claim  to  national  representation. 
This  event  would  be  the  first  stage  in  the  advance  of 
Austria-Hungary  towards  Salonica.  Only  2i|  per  cent. 
of  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries  are  Roman  Catholic, 
while  23  per  cent,  are  Greek  Oriental  Christians.  The 
history  of  the  land,  which  preserved  its  independence 
side  by  side  with  Servia  until  the  Ottoman  Empire  over- 
came both,  and  the  persistence  of  a  considerable  body  of 
Mahomedan  population  (35  per  cent.)  will  make  it  easy 
for  an  intelligent  Government  to  keep  the  country  de- 
veloping along  independent  lines.  Austria- Hungary  can 
never  suffer  the  threatening  floods  of  the  "  Great  Servian  " 


THE   STATES  153 

agitation  in  Servia  and  Montenegro  to  break  over 
Bosnia. 

The  peculiar  name  of  Herzegovina  recalls  an  episode 
in  the  endeavours  of  the  district  to  unite  itself  with  the 
west.  It  is  derived  from  a  native  despot,  who  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  withdrew  from  submis- 
sion to  Bosnia,  and  under  the  title  of  Herzog  (Duke), 
gave  his  allegiance  as  a  feudal  vassal  to  the  Emperor, 
Frederick  the  Third.  This  portion,  however,  of  the 
"  occupied  territory "  has  long  been  under  the  direct 
influence  of  Montenegro.  Here  arose  the  insurrection 
of  1875,  which  had  been  quietly  fomented  by  Russia, 
and  was  fatal  to  the  Turkish  rule.  Who  can  tell 
whether  on  the  eve  of  great  events  this  "  scrap  of  Herze- 
govina "  may  not  once  more  draw  the  eyes  of  the  world 
upon  her  ? 

Of  the  Servian  countries,  Montenegro  was  established 
by  Russia,  and  is  a  mountain  fastness  unconditionally 
devoted  to  that  Power.  Originally  a  feudal  dukedom  of 
the  Servian  monarchy,  Czernagora  became,  after  the  battle 
of  the  Amselfield  which  destroyed  that  kingdom  in  the  year 
1389,  a  place  of  retreat  for  fugitive  bands  of  Servians. 
The  brave  and  hardy  shepherd  race  has  held  out  in  its 
wild  and  inaccessible  mountains  against  the  attacks  of 
the  Turks,  and  has  never  been  subjugated  by  them.  The 
family  of  their  ecclesiastical  rulers,  the  hereditary  Vla- 
dika  of  the  country,  developed  in  the  nineteenth  century 
into  a  real  dynasty,  a  royal  house,  which  drew  closer 
the  links  of  alliance  with  Russia  forged  in  the  previous 
century,  and,  protected  by  Russia,  passed  successfully 
even  through  so  severe  a  crisis  as  the  defeat  of  1862. 
The  active  participation  of  Montenegro  in  the  great 
decisive  struggles  with  Turkey  was  rewarded  by  a  con- 
siderable extension  of  territory,  which  doubled  the 
country's  area  and  raised  its  importance  even  more 
signally.  Montenegro  not  only  gained  fruitful  valleys 
and  lowlands,  but  also  that  access  to  the  sea  at  Antivari 
and  Dulcigno  to  which  it  had  so  long  aspired  in  vain. 

On  the  north-east  a  strip  of  Turkish  territory  divides 


154  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Montenegro  from  Servia  only  by  thirty  miles.  The 
mediaeval  Servian  kingdom,  after  a  brief  hesitation  as  to 
whether  it  would  unite  itself  with  Rome  or  Byzantium, 
became  the  seat  of  an  autonomous  Servian  Church .  be- 
longing to  the  Greek  confession,  and  attained  its  greatest 
strength,  at  the  expense  of  the  decaying  Roman  Em- 
pire of  the  East,  before  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  King  Stephen  Dushan  then  ruled  from  the 
Danube  to  ^tolia,  from  the  Balkans  to  the  Bocche 
di  Cattaro,  and  from  the  Struma  to  the  shores  of 
Epirus.  The  independence  of  the  kingdom  was  destroyed 
by  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  the  Amselfield  (Kossvo- 
polye)  in  1389.  On  the  same  field,  at  the  later  dates 
of  1448  and  1680,  the  most  hopeful  efforts  of  Hungary 
and  Austria  for  the  freeing  of  Servia  were  defeated. 
It  was  not  until  1804  that  the  internal  weakness  of 
Turkey  offered  to  the  Servians  the  opportunity  of  a 
successful  rising.  After  fierce  battles  of  varying  issues, 
a  dealer  in  pigs  who  had  risen  to  wealth  became  chief 
(Knes)  in  18 17,  and  in  1830  was  acknowledged  by  the 
Porte  as  Prince  of  Servia,  becoming  the  founder  of 
the  existing  dynasty.  When  the  Porte,  under  pressure 
from  the  European  Powers,  withdrew  its  troops  from 
Belgrade  in  1862,  and  from  three  smaller  fortresses  in 
1867,  the  country  was  left  to  develop  in  freedom.  Its 
evolution  was  unstable  and  stormy.  In  1876  Servia 
hastily,  and  without  consideration,  opened  the  war  with 
Turkey  and  was  only  saved  by  the  intervention  of  the 
Powers  from  the  direct  results  of  defeat.  At  the  parti- 
tion of  Turkey  a  considerable  addition  of  territory  was 
awarded  to  Servia,  and  tracts  of  country  were  united  to 
her  in  which  the  Albanian  and  Bulgarian  languages  were 
spoken. 

While  the  influences  of  Austria  and  Russia  have  pre- 
dominated alternately  in  Servia — which  has  called  itself 
a  kingdom  since  1882 — it  is  by  the  latter  Power  that 
the  culture  and  development  of  Bulgaria  have  been 
moulded.  The  Bulgarians  possess  a  mediaeval  history 
rich  in  events  and  full  of  catastrophe.     The  Turkish  rule 


THE   STATES  155 

succeeded,  and  was  here  particularly  oppressive.  The 
insurrection  of  1876,  which  was  suppressed  not  only  with 
severity  but  with  ferocity  and  with  sanguinary  violence, 
gave  Russia  a  ground  of  intervention.  The  Congress  of 
Berlin  awarded  to  the  Principality  of  Bulgaria  the 
territory  between  the  Danube  and  the  Balkans,  and  in 
addition  the  country  about  Sofia  at  the  sources  of  the 
Struma  and  the  Isker,  while  the  whole  of  Macedonia 
was  restored  to  Turkey,  and  Eastern  Rumelia,  between 
the  Balkans  and  the  mountains  of  Rhodope,  was  placed 
under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey  as  an  autonomous 
province.  A  revolution  in  Philippopolis  displaced  the 
government  of  the  viceroy  in  1885,  and  paved  the  way 
for  a  union  with  Bulgaria.  Alexander  of  Battenberg, 
the  first  Prince  of  Bulgaria,  with  a  full  knowledge  that  he 
was  contravening  the  decision  of  the  Powers,  supported 
this  revolution,  and  called  himself  Prince  of  the  Two 
Bulgarias.  The  protest  of  the  Powers  emboldened  Servia 
to  attack  the  principality  at  this  grave  crisis,  but  the 
Bulgarian  army,.trained  under  Russian  officers,  victoriously 
defended  the  frontier.  The  union  continued  to  subsist, 
notwithstanding  the  dangers  to  which  Russian  intervention 
in  the  free  development  of  Bulgaria  exposed  the  country. 
In  Bulgaria  the  severity  and  long  continuance  of 
Turkish  rule  had  so  completely  broken  the  thread  of 
historical  development,  that  an  entirely  new  political  edi- 
fice has  had  to  be  constructed  in  our  own  time,  having 
no  possibility  of  any  link  with  the  far  past.  The  Turkish 
power  has  had  far  less  influence  upon  the  fate  of  the 
southern  and  eastern  foreland  of  the  Carpathians. 
Here  two  states,  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  grew  up  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  peopled  by  Roumanian  inhabitants  of  the 
Greek  faith,  and  standing  in  dependent  relations  to  Hun- 
gary which  gradually  weakened.  Both  became  subject 
to  Turkey  but  retained  their  Christian  Boyars — a  native 
aristocracy  holding  great  landed  possessions,  and  their 
Hospodars,  chosen  from  among  this  aristocracy  and  the 
heads  of  the  Church,  and  no  caste  of  Turkish  lords  succeeded 
in  settUng  within  their  domain.      Not  until  the  eighteenth 


156 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


century,  when  the  influence  of  Russia  became  threatening, 
did  the  Porte  adopt  the  plan  of  giving  the  Hospodar's 
office  to  Phanariot  Greeks — who  paid  well  for  it — and  of 
changing  these  rulers  often.  The  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856 
accorded  to  the  Danubian  principalities  the  fullest  measure 
of  internal  independence  ;  the  payment  of  tribute  and  the 


^  ^^^^1:;^- 


""'n,. 


^garia       Rurr>< 


Fig.  26. — Diagram  to  show  Area  of  States. 


.denial  of  independent  foreign  relations  were  almost  the 
only  real  signs  left  of  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey.  In  1857 
the  two  principalities  demanded  the  formation  of  a  single 
Roumanian  state  under  a  prince  of  foreign  extraction. 
This  aim,  which  was  opposed  by  the  private  interests  of 
adjacent  Powers,  was   reached   by  progressive   steps.     A 


THE   STATES  157 

Moldavian  Boyar,  Alexander  Kusa,  chosen  to  be  Hospodar 
by  the  diets  of  both  the  countries,  was  the  first  Prince  of 
all  Roumania.  After  he  was  dethroned,  Charles  the  First, 
a  prince  of  the  Catholic  line  of  the  Hohenzoilerns,  was 
elected   to    the   throne.      By   the   share   he   took   in  the 


Fig.  27. — Diagram  to  show  Population  (a.d.  1900). 


Russo-Turkish  war,  he  raised  Roumania  to  complete  in- 
dependence. As  a  compensation  for  Bessarabia,  which 
had  been  taken  by  Russia,  Roumania  received  the 
Dobruja,  with  the  port  of  Constanza.  Roumania  was 
recognised  as  a  kingdom  in  1881. 

The    whole    system    of    Central    European    states    is 


158  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

complicated,  but  not  quite  devoid  of  symmetry.  Its 
centre  is  occupied  by  two  great  Powers,  each  with 
dominions  exceeding  200,000  square  miles,  the  boun- 
daries of  whose  territories  and  peoples  adjoin  so  closely 
that  no  internal  movement  of  the  one  can  be  indif- 
ferent to  the  other  ;  each  has  an  interest  inseparable 
from  its  own  security  in  the  well-being  and  strength  of 
the  other.  Both  have  retained  from  the  days  of  their 
closer  political  association  a  certain  looseness  of  internal 
formation.  The  German  Empire  is  a  voluntary  associa- 
tion of  states  competing  in  their  internal  development,  but 
forming  on  the  basis  of  their  one  nationality  a  firmly 
welded  unity  in  matters  of  defence  by  land  and  sea,  and 
of  economics  and  law.  The  unity  of  Austro-Hungary  is 
in  form  more  complete,  but  in  fact,  owing  to  the  varied 
admixture  of  races,  less  solidly  secured.  Where  the  com- 
mon frontier  of  the  two  great  Powers  ends,  at  the  Lake 
of  Constance,  Switzerland,  well  sheltered  by  the  moun- 
tains, lies  between  them  and  their  great  neighbour  on  the 
west.  The  weak  copy  of  Switzerland,  the  Republic  of 
Cracow,  formed  between  the  great  Powers  in  1 8 1  5  at  the 
other  extremity  of  their  frontier,  did  not  manage  to  last 
long  ;  it  was  swallowed  by  Austria  in  1846.  In  yet  other 
quarters  the  two  Powers  endure  a  common  fate  in  being 
shut  out  by  states  of  moderate  size  from  the  mouths  of 
their  largest  rivers.  Compared  with  the  populations  of  the 
great  Powers,  one  of  which  has  more  than  fifty-six  millions 
of  inhabitants  and  the  other  forty-five,  Roumania,  Bulgaria, 
and  Servia,  which  have  eleven  millions  among  them,  form 
about  an  equivalent  to  the  three  Netherland  states  of 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  Luxemburg.  The  latter,  how- 
ever, have  in  every  respect  a  far  closer  connection  with 
the  Central  European  civilisation  than  have  the  states  of 
the  Lower  Danube.  Their  remoteness  is  evidenced  by 
the  backwardness  of  their  national  education.  The  in- 
dependent states  on  the  Lower  Danube  and  those  at 
the  mouths  of  the  Rhine,  Meuse,  and  Scheldt  have  a 
further  point  of  resemblance,  however,  in  the  fact  that 
they    are    alike  subjected    to    powerful    influences    from. 


THE   STATES  159 

Powers  not  situated  in  Central  Europe.  As  in  Belgium, 
the  French  element  comprises  nearly  half  the  population, 
while  French  was  until  recently  the  dominant  political 
language,  thus  further  increasing  the  susceptibility  of  the 
country  to  French  influences ;  so  in  the  south-eastern 
states  of  Central  Europe  the  will  of  Russia  carries  special 
weight  ;  they  are  bound  to  Russia  by  their  remembrance 
of  the  Turkish  War,  by  their  dependence  on  the  Black 
Sea,  and  most  of  all  by  the  Graeco-Oriental  Church.  The 
Montenegrin  outpost  carries  this  influence  of  Russia  up 
to  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

Even  this  general  glance  at  the  conformation  of  the 
Central  European  group  of  states  leaves  no  doubt  of  the 
direction  towards  which  the  eyes  of  this  circle  of  nations 
must  be  turned  in  watchful  attention.  France  was  the 
most  dangerous  neighbour  as  long  as  its  population  and 
strength  exceeded  those  of  every  other  individual  power 
on  the  Continent.  At  the  present  day  it  stands  only  on  an 
equal  footing  with  those  in  the  heart  of  the  Continent,  and 
shares  with  them  the  feeling  that  their  spheres  of  power 
are  cramped  by  the  growth  of  Russian  and  British 
imperial  power.  The  old  equilibrium  of  Europe  is 
inclining  more  and  more  in  favour  of  the  East.  The 
political  field  has  widened.  A  new  equilibrium  can  only 
be  established  if  the  Powers  of  Central  Europe  stand 
shoulder  to  shoulder  for  the  maintenance  of  the  free  and 
peaceful  economic  development  which  must  reach  ever 
farther  and  farther  abroad,  as  the  increasing  populations 
find  their  homes  growing  too  narrow  for  them.  The 
belief  in  a  permanent  and  intimate  political  agreement 
among  the  peoples  of  Europe  would  be  premature,  con- 
sidering the  acute  differences  which  history  has  bequeathed 
to  them  ;  but  the  position  of  the  peoples  who  surround 
the  Alps  is  such  as  to  warn  them  imperatively  that  they 
should  reach  their  hands  across  the  mountain  tops  one  to 
another  in  an  economic  alliance,  for  the  common  safe- 
guarding of  their  interests,  amidst  the  great  Powers  of 
the  world. 


i6o  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Note  on  Authorities. — The  territorial  development  of  the  States  of 
Central  Europe  is  exhibited  by  numerous  historical  atlases  ;  the  most 
important  of  these,  and  that  upon  which  most  of  the  others  are  founded, 
is  K.  von  Spruner-Menke's  Historisch-Geographischer  Hand-  Atla^. 
Third  edition,  1 862-1 879.     118  sheets. 

The  development  of  the  States  in  the  last  century  is  set  forth  in  an 
enlightened  and  impartial  manner  by  C.  Seignobos,  Histoire  politique  de 
t Europe  cdntemporaine,  1897. 

Friedrich  Ratzel's  Politische  Geographie,  1897,  gives  a  general  idea 
of  the  relative  stages  of  civilisation  and  decay  of  the  various  States, 
considered  from  a  geographical  standpoint. 


CHAPTER  XI 

ECONOMIC    GEOGRAPHY 

By  nature,  Central  Europe  belongs  to  the  great  forest- 
clad  region  of  the  earth  which  extends  across  150  degrees 
of   longitude,  from   the   Atlantic  to   the   Sea 

of   Okhotsk.     Connected   growths   of   timber    Aximal  and 

Vfpftarle 
once  prevailed  over  far  the  larger  portion  of    t 

its   surface,  and  would   do   so    again   if   any 

great  catastrophe  came  to  overwhelm  the  population  of 

this  region,  and  to  leave  the  powers  of  nature  once  more 

in    the  ascendant  throughout    the   lands    now  so    highly 

developed  by  human  cultivation. 

From  the  abundant  flora  of  our  meadows  and  heaths, 
however,  botanists  conclude  that  the  forest  country  can 
never  have  been  entirely  unbroken.  Considerable  dis- 
tricts of  Central  Europe  must  naturally  have  been  free 
from  forest  ;  not  only  the  high  regions  of  all  the  great 
mountains — where  a  shortened  period  of  vegetation  and 
loads  of  snow  and  of  hoar-frost  tend  first  to  stunt,  and 
finally  to  prevent  the  growth  of  trees — but  also  large 
lowland  tracts,  where  either  too  much  moisture  or  too 
little  prevented  trees  from  doing  well.  The  dusty  plains 
of  Hungary  and  Roumania  swarmed,  even  in  the  time  of 
the  ancients,  with  hordes  of  mounted  nomads  ;  and  in 
the  north-west  of  Germania  the  Romans  came  upon  a 
wide  domain  of  moorland,  contrasting  sharply  with  the 
forests  of  the  interior.  Even  in  the  forest  country  great 
clearings  were  formed  by  the  river  valleys  with  their 
boggy  grounds  that  were  sometimes  green  meadows  and 
sometimes  alder  swamps. 

That  there   were  great  forests,  covering    wide    areas, 

amid  which  lay  but  scattered  oases  of  human  habitation,  is 

161 


i62  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

declared  both  by  the  distribution  of  archaeological  remains 
and  by  the  unequivocal  statement  of  the  oldest  writers. 
The  thickets  of  the  primeval  forests  formed  a  surer 
protection  for  German  freedom  in  those  days,  and'  of 
Bohemian  independence  later  on,  than  did  the  defensive 
powers  of  their  brave  sons.  The  course  by  which  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Germany  have  been  won  to  higher  civilisa- 
tion has  been  by  a  constant  reduction  of  the  forests,  and 
the  echo  of  that  old  struggle  still  lingers  in  the  pleasant 
names  of  the  German  village  colonies  that  rose  amid 
the  ancient  trees. 

Considerable  portions  of  the  forests  of  antiquity  still 
remain  in  Central  Europe.  If  we  exclude  from  the 
reckoning  those  parts  where  not  more  than  6  per  cent. 
of  the  country  is  woodland,  namely  14,000  square  miles 
around  the  North  Sea,  26,000  square  miles  in  the  heart 
of  Hungary  and  an  even  greater  area  in  Roumania  and 
Bulgaria — some  70,000  square  miles  in  all — then  through- 
out the  rest  of  Central  Europe,  about  a  third  of  the  sur- 
face is  still  covered  with  forests.  This  territory  therefore 
occupies  a  middle  place  between  the  denuded  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  where  the  percentage  of  forest  is  generally 
less  than  15,  and  those  of  the  north  and  east,  where  it  rises 
in  Sweden  to  44,  in  Finland  to  38,  and  in  Russia  to  36. 
All  the  mountains  are  thickly  wooded.  Close  to  rich  and 
populous  valleys  in  the  Rhine  provinces  and  Hesse-Nassau 
lie  thick  forests  that  render  the  district  of  Wiesbaden  and 
Coblenz  the  most  wooded  of  the  German  Empire.  In 
the  Bohmer  Wald,  the  eastern  Alpine  countries,  and  the 
Carpathians,  are  areas  of  forest  occupying  60  per  cent., 
and  in  the  circle  of  Kimpolung  in  the  Bukovina  even 
74  per  cent.,  of  the  face  of  the  country.  Great  primeval 
forests  are  enclosed,  too,  by  the  inaccessible  mountain 
country  in  the  trunk  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  In  the 
sandy  districts  of  the  North  German  lowland  the  train 
runs  for  hours  between  silent  heaths  covered  with  Scotch 
firs. 

From  an  extent  so  great  as  this,  it  must  inevitably 
follow   that  the   forest,    even    at    the    present   day,   must 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  163 

exercise  a  strong  influence  upon  Central  European 
methods  of  cultivation,  and  also  upon  conditions  of  life 
and  work  among  the  people.  The  period  in  which  the 
value  of  the  wood  for  burning  furnishes  the  only  access- 
ible profit,  beyond  those  secondary  profits  that  came  from 
the  pasturage  of  cattle,  has  not  yet  expired  in  every 
part  of  Central  Europe.  In  Bosnia,  charcoal-burners  are 
still  consuming  forests  apparently  inexhaustible.  But 
most  of  the  woodlands  of  Central  Europe  have  already 
fallen  under  the  rule  of  active  commerce,  which  seeks 
so  to  deal  with  them  as  to  transmit  the  wood,  in  its  most 
profitable  shape,  to  those  places  where  the  price  is  highest. 
A  great  demand  for  wood  and  a  great  supply  of  wood 
seldom  occur  at  the  same  place  ;  where  they  do,  it  is 
principally  in  the  vicinity  of  certain  mines  ;  but  for  the 
most  part  the  supply  and  the  demand  lie  far  apart  and 
need  the  mediation  of  rivers  and  railways.  Large  towns, 
and  in  particular  seaports,  are  the  places  that  crave  most 
eagerly  for  wood.  The  trunks  of  which  were  made  the 
piles  of  Rotterdam,  and  the  ships  on  which  Ruyter  and 
Tromp  fought  their  sea-fights,  grew  in  the  Black  Forest. 
The  courses,  however,  of  the  timber  trade  have  changed 
in  many  ways  since  those  times.  Nowadays,  the  har- 
bours of  the  Rhine  delta  are  full  of  timber  from  the 
Baltic  countries,  from  Norway,  and  from  America  ;  and 
twenty-fold  more  wood  goes  up-stream  to  supply  the  min- 
ing districts  of  the  Ruhr,  than  went  down  the  river  from 
Germany.  In  general,  the  increasing  tendency  to  make 
other  uses  of  water-ways  has  caused  timber  rafts  to  be 
superseded  by  vessels.  Of  the  greater  rivers,  only  the 
Danube,  after  its  entrance  into  the  Austrian  Empire,  the 
Vistula,  and  the  Memel  have  any  considerable  trade  in 
floated  timber.  Ease  of  transport  has  caused  great  clear- 
ances to  be  made  along  the  shores  of  the  rivers  in  the 
countries  of  Poland  and  Lithuania.  Whole  woods  have 
been  floated  away  from  these  countries,  and  the  lumber 
trade  of  both  rivers  is  now  compelled  to  seek  its  material 
far  to  the  south,  in  the  swamps  of  Rokitno  and  in  the 
Carpathians.     Besides  this   great   trade  in  rough  timber. 


i64  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  endeavour  to  make  the  wood  as  valuable  as  possible 
by  working  it  up  is  always  spreading.  Manufactories 
of  wood-pulp  and  cellulose,  of  impregnated  woods  for 
bridges,  railway  sleepers,  and  telegraph  poles,  of  wood- 
paving,  shoemakers'  pegs,  and  matches  have  increased 
in  an  astonishing  degree  during  the  last  twenty  or  thirty 
years.  This  introduction  of  wood  products  into  inter- 
national commerce  has,  in  every  country,  raised  the 
standard  of  care  bestowed  upon  forests,  and  has  led  to 
far-reaching  changes  in  the  forests  themselves,  their 
limits,  their  preservation,  even  in  their  possession  and 
the  laws  relating  to  them.  The  forests  of  Central  Europe, 
as  compared  with  those  of  the  Russian  lowland,  were 
particularly  rich  in  deciduous  trees.  One  important 
cause  of  this  is  that  the  limit  of  growth  of  the  beech, 
from  the  eastern  end  of  the  Frische  Haff  to  Kishinev 
in  Bessarabia,  everywhere  nearly  follows  the  eastern 
boundary  of  Central  Europe.  It  can  be  demonstrated 
with  certainty  that  deciduous  trees  formerly  occupied 
a  far  greater  area  in  Germany  than  did  the  conifers — 
perhaps  double  the  area. 

In  the  North  German  lowland  there  has  been  a  re- 
markable and  triumphant  advance  of  the  Scotch  fir,  an 
advance  that  has  not  only  been  compared  with,  but  has 
been  shown  to  have  a  direct  relation  to,  the  spread  of  the 
Prussian  power,  which  has  slowly  grown  to  supremacy 
over  the  greater  part  of  that  plain.  62  per  cent,  of  its 
woodlands  are  now  occupied  by  the  Scotch  fir,  and  no  less 
than  43  per  cent,  of  those  of  the  whole  German  Empire ; 
while  in  the  woods  of  Austria  the  fir  {abies)  and  the  pine, 
with  percentages  of  49  and  19  respectively,  far  exceed  the 
Scotch  fir,  the  percentage  of  which  is  but  3.  The  forests 
of  Hungary  are  very  different.  In  them,  even  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  the  conifers,  with  a  percentage  of  18,  fall  far 
behind  the  beech  with  its  52,  and  the  oak  with  its  28  per 
cent. 

With  the  greater  utilisation  of  the  forests,  laws  have 
been  made  for  their  preservation,  and  many  landlords 
now  enclose  their  woods  like  gardens  and  prosecute  any 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


165 


person  who  sets  foot  upon  them  without  special  per- 
mission. The  greatest  landed  properties  of  Central  Europe 
naturally  belong  to  great  forest  regions.  In  Upper  Silesia 
one-fifth  of  the  whole  country,  an  area  of  1040  square 
miles,  belongs  to  seven  owners.  None  of  these,  however, 
can  be  compared,  as  to  extent  of  possessions,  with  Count 
Schonborn-Buchheim,  who  owns  the  domain  of  Munkacs, 
extending  over   513  square  miles,  or  a  third  part  of  the 


Fig.  28. — Northern  Limits  of  Maize,  the  Beech,  and  the  Vine. 


County  of  Bereg,  still  less  with  Prince  Schwarzenberg, 
whose  property  in  South-East  Bohemia  covers  686  square 
miles.  His  ancestor  was  able,  as  long  ago  as  1788,  to 
deal  with  his  immense  woods  like  a  sovereign  by  opening 
a  canal  33  miles  long  to  float  his  timber  from  the  Moldau 
basin  into  that  of  the  Danube,  and  so  to  bring  his  domain 
into  touch  with  the  Vienna  market. 

Great  institutions  or  monasteries  have  frequently  drawn 
together  large  forest  districts  under  a  common  ownership. 
The  benefits  that  result  to  agriculture   in  general,   when 


i66  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

woods  remain  upon  the  mountains  and  assist  in  distribut- 
ing the  moisture  given  out  by  the  atmosphere,  has  often 
been  pointed  out.  But  there  are  many  areas  of  forest 
of  which  we  are  compelled  to  ask  ourselves  whether  fhey 
have  any  right  to  go  on  existing  where  space  is  beginning 
to  be  insufficient  for  a  growing  population. 

Even  in  the  oldest  historical  times,  the  great  forests 
included  great  stretches  of  country  almost  bare  of  trees. 
Most  of  these  are  marked  in  the  present  day  by  exten- 
sive and  highly  organised  cattle-farming.  In  spite  of 
the  advance  of  agriculture,  this  branch  of  industry  holds 
its  place  in  many  large  areas  that  vary  greatly  in  nature, 
but  have  the  one  characteristic  of  presenting  obstacles, 
either  in  climate  or  soil,  to  the  success  of  agriculture.  On 
the  south-eastern  steppes,  the  obstacles  consist  in  too  little 
moisture  and  in  too  high  and  too  prolonged  a  summer 
temperature  ;  in  the  high  districts  of  the  mountains  the 
obstacle  lies  in  too  low  a  temperature.  If,  in  these  parts, 
the  steepness,  and  sometimes  the  rockiness,  of  the  ground 
contributes  to  limit  the  range  of  cultivation,  the  long 
saturation  of  the  earth  does  so,  no  less  decidedly,  in 
the  marshes  and  valley  bottoms  of  the  lowlands. 

Ever  since  Homer  sang  of  the  *'  horse-milking " 
nomads  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  mounted  peoples 
have  made  their  home  in  the  steppe  countries  of  Europe. 
The  progress  of  higher  cultivation,  however,  has  so 
diminished  the  free  spaces  where  herds  of  horses  could 
run  wild  that  the  Pusta  of  Hortobagy,  near  Debreczin, 
is  now,  perhaps,  the  only  spot  remaining  in  Central 
Europe  where  it  is  possible  to  gain  some  faint  idea  of 
the  life  that  once  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  lowland. 
Here,  on  pastures  whose  area  runs  to  loo  square  miles, 
and  amid  cattle  to  the  number  of  15,000,  4000  horses 
live  under  the  care  of  mounted  keepers,  the  Csikoshs. 
Hungary  still  remains,  notwithstanding  the  changes  of 
civilisation,  the  leading  country  in  the  matter  of  horse- 
breeding.  Of  the  gh  million  horses  in  Central  Europe, 
2^  million  live  within  the  circle  of  the  Carpathians. 
Another  horse-breeding  centre  which  can  compare  with 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  167 

Hungary,  not  indeed  in  extent,  but  in  deliberate  organisa- 
tion, and  in  results  that  have  been  tested  by  modern 
warfare,  is  Lithuania,  whence  come  two-thirds  of  the 
cavalry  mounts  of  the  German  army.  From  Schleswig 
to  East  Friesland  a  strong  kind  of  horse  is  bred,  which 
is  by  no  means  so  heavy  as  the  Brabant  breed  of  the 
Belgian  lowlands.  What  Central  Germany  has  gained  in 
this  respect  is  not  so  much  a  gift  of  nature  as  the  fruit 
of  her  own  unremitting  labour,  which  has  never  suffered 
itself  to  be  daunted  by  such  recurring  catastrophes  as 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  the  Napoleonic  Wars.  How 
different  in  this  respect,  as  in  others,  is  the  position  of 
Britain  behind  the  silver  barrier  of  the  sea  waves  ! 

Many  of  the  districts  in  which  horse-breeding  has 
grown  important  have  also  become  competitors  in  the 
matter  of  cattle  -  farming.  But  differences  of  natural 
conditions  have  led  in  this  department  to  a  more  marked 
divergence  both  in  aims  and  in  results.  In  the  south- 
east, from  Podolia  and  Roumania  across  the  Hungarian 
plain  to  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  over  the  Italian  frontier, 
the  prevalent  breed  is  that  of  light-grey  Eastern  European 
cattle,  with  narrow  heads  sloping  towards  the  mouth, 
long  flat  foreheads,  and  horns  of  considerable  length,  that 
bend  upwards  and  twist  sideways.  These  muscular, 
weather-hardened  beasts  of  the  steppe  are  distinguished 
by  great  powers  of  walking  and  of  drawing  loads  ;  they 
also  fatten  well,  but  give  little  milk.  A  complete  contrast 
is  offered  by  the  cattle  of  the  North  Sea  district,  with 
their  abundant  milk  supply  and  small  powers  of  work. 
Holland  has  become  the  model  dairy  country  of  Central 
Europe.  Dutch  settlements  have  carried  their  cattle  and 
their  methods  not  only  into  districts  of  nature  akin  to 
their  own,  such  as  the  delta  of  the  Vistula,  but  also  far 
into  the  interior.  On  the  reputation  of  these  rested  that 
confidence  in  Dutch  butter  which,  fifteen  years  ago,  pre- 
vailed in  the  English  market.  A  third  type  of  cattle- 
farming  occurs  in  the  mountains.  The  high  summer 
pastures  are  full  of  nourishing  fodder,  and  the  hay 
harvests    of    the    valleys    help    to    supply    food    for    the 


i68  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

active,  short-horned  Alpine  cattle.  The  cattle  industry 
of  the  Alps  is  directed,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  breeding 
of  good  milch-cows,  a  branch  pursued  especially  on  the 
Upper  Italian  plain,  and,  on  the  other,  to  obtaining 
abundant  supplies  of  milk,  and  to  the  manufacture  of 
cheese  in  great  quantities.  The  exports  of  cheese  from 
the  Netherlands  and  Switzerland  stand  far  ahead  of  those 
of  any  other  district.  The  marshes  of  the  North  Sea 
and  the  valleys  of  the  Alps  belong  to  the  districts  where 
cattle  are  relatively  numerous,  the  number  of  head  of 
cattle  being  little,  or  not  at  all,  less  than  the  population  ; 
and  their  cattle,  compared  with  those  of  other  parts 
where  the  same  proportion  holds,  such  as  the  steppes  to 
the  south  of  the  Dobruja  and  the  Bosnia  mountains,  are 
immeasurably  finer  and  more  valuable.  The  contrary 
extreme  is  furnished  by  Istria  and  Dalmatia,  where  there 
is  hardly  one  horned  beast  to  six  inhabitants.  The  com- 
bination of  the  soil  of  the  Karst  and  a  Mediterranean 
summer  makes  the  conditions  of  life  most  unfavourable. 
The  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  Central  European 
states  amounts  to  between  43  and  44  millions,  about 
one-third  of  the  population. 

While  cattle  serve  so  many  useful  purposes,  and 
while  the  keeping  of  them  comes  into  touch  at  so  many 
points  with  human  needs  and  human  labours,  the  number 
of  pigs,  which  are  needed  solely  to  satisfy  the  increasing 
demand  for  meat,  caused  by  a  growing  population  and  by 
higher  standards  of  life,  has  risen  to  nearly  30  millions. 
The  districts  where  they  are  most  largely  kept  are  imme- 
diately adjacent  to  others  in  which  this  branch  of  farming 
had  been  abandoned  under  the  influence  of  Mahome- 
danism,  and  has  only  recently  been  resumed.  The  oak- 
woods  of  Servia  and  North  Bosnia  are  the  regions  where 
most  swine  are  bred,  and  considerable  numbers  go  thence 
to  the  important  fattening  ground  of  Hungary.  In  Ger- 
many, the  district  between  the  last  bend  of  the  Elbe  and 
the  Upper  Ems  is  especially  rich  in  pigs  ;  Westphalian 
hams  are  particularly  esteemed.  But  in  other  parts,  too, 
the  pig  is  of   importance  in  the  households  of  peasants 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  169 

and  tenant  farmers.  The  fattening  of  swine  helps  to 
support  the  tiny  farmsteads  that  eke  out  a  Hving  around 
the  great  properties  of  the  east. 

The  areas  in  which  there  are  most  swine  adjoin  those 
most  frequented  by  another  domesticated  animal  supplying 
far  different  needs — the  goat.  Of  the  nine  and  a  half  mil- 
lions of  goats  in  Central  Europe,  three  millions  and  a  half 
inhabit  the  mountain  countries  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Adriatic.  In  the  Alps  their  number  has  been  kept  down 
ever  since  the  recognition  of  the  drawbacks  arising  from 
the  serious  damage  they  do  to  growing  timber. 

The  same  districts  that  keep  many  goats  retain  to  the 
present  day  the  most  ancient  method  of  sheep-farming — 
vast  flocks  alternating  between  mountain  pastures  and 
lowlands.  There  is  a  region  running  from  the  middle  of 
Roumania,  between  the  Alt  and  the  Sereth,  through  the 
Dobruja,  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Bosnia,  to  Dalmatia,  in 
which  the  number  of  the  sheep  exceeds  the  number  of 
the  people.  Of  the  forty-four  millions  of  sheep  in  Central 
Europe,  eighteen  millions  belong  to  this  region. 

The  life  of  the  half-savage  wandering  shepherds, 
whose  wants  are  nearly  all  supplied  by  their  flocks,  which 
yield  them  milk,  cheese,  pastiirma  or  postrame  (hard  pressed 
meat  dried  in  the  sun  and  cut  into  strips),  skins,  leather, 
and  wool,  lingers  on  into  the  present  like  a  remnant  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Very  different  were  the  varied  circumstances  amid 
which  sheep-farming  developed  in  more  highly  cultivated 
countries.  In  these  a  great  expenditure  of  capital  and  of 
intelligence  was  devoted,  at  the  close  of  last  century,  to 
the  improvement  of  the  breeds,  and  even  under  unpropi- 
tious  conditions  of  climate,  a  much  improved  quality  of 
wool  was  produced.  In  recent  times,  wool-growing  has 
ceased  to  be  remunerative  for  European  breeders  work- 
ing under  difficult  conditions.  Australia,  Argentina,  and 
the  Cape  are  the  present  leaders  in  this  branch  of  pro- 
duction. The  greatly  diminished  flocks  of  Central  Europe 
form  hardly  an  eleventh  part  of  the  stock  upon  the  earth's 
surface.     When   the   careful   nurture  of  fine-wool   sheep 


I70  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

ceased  to  be  profitable,  it  was  superseded  by  increased 
breeding  of  sheep  for  food.  But  in  this  department, 
too,  profits  have  suffered  from  severe  competition,  in 
which  trans-oceanic  countries,  with  their  exports  of  frozen 
meat,  now  take  part. 

That  facihtation  of  intercourse  which  causes  the 
whole  earth  to  work  and  feel  as  a  single  organism  has 
rendered  the  position  and  the  condition  of  life  in  Central 
Europe  more  difficult.  This  is  especially  true  of  agri- 
culture and  the  industries  depending  upon  it.  The 
plough  and  the  spade  rule  two-fifths  of  the  area  of  Central 
Europe. 

Cereals  have  very  long  been  a  possession  of  Central 
Europe.  In  the  cavern  of  Aggtelek  (Hungary),  a 
stratum  belonging  to  the  later  stone  age  contained 
not  only  grains  of  wheat,  but  also  traces  of  a  slightly 
leavened  bread.  Notwithstanding  this  early  cultivation 
of  wheat  in  Central  Europe,  oaten  bread  was  the  food  of 
the  ancient  Germani.  Barley  and  wheat  they  seemed 
to  have  considered  only  as  materials  for  the  brewing 
of  beer. 

Recent  times  have  seen  the  advance  of  wheat  into 
districts  formerly  occupied  by  poorer  crops.  Into  this 
competition  between  the  old  native  kinds  of  corn,  foreign 
crops,  drawn  by  travel  and  discovery  from  distant  homes, 
entered.  Two  of  these,  buckwheat  and  maize,  are  now 
established  all  over  Central  Europe.  The  former  appears 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  from  its  native  Asia 
by  the  Tartars.  It  did  not  begin  to  make  its  way  in 
Central  Europe  till  towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Now  it  is  important  mainly  in  two  districts  lying  far  apart 
— the  marshlands  and  heaths  of  the  north-west,  from 
Jutland  to  the  Netherlands,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the 
south-eastern  lands  which  use  this  quick  ripening  crop  to 
draw  a  second  harvest  from  their  once-reaped  fields. 
Along  the  eastern  borders  of  the  Alps,  in  Styria,  Carinthia, 
and  Carniola,  wide  valley  hollows  are  filled  towards 
the  end  of  the  summer  by  the  pale  blossom  of  buck- 
wheat. 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


[71 


A  far  more  important  part  is  played  by  maize  in  the 
south-east  of  Central  Europe.  This  crop,  belonging  to 
the  ancient  American  agriculture  of  the  Incas  and  the 
Aztecs,  was  quick  to  gain  a  footing  in  Europe.  As  a 
fodder  crop  maize  also  enters  into  the  agriculture  of 
Germany.  In  the  south  and  east  of  the  Carpathians  this 
is  distinctly  the  main  crop,  occupying  more  ground  than 
any  other  cereal,  not  only  in  Roumania,  but  also  in  the 
Bukovina  and  the  south-east  of  Galicia,  along  the  Upper 


Fig.  29. — The  Proportion  of  Area  under  Maize  to  Area  under  other  Cereals. 


Pruth.  The  high  summer  temperature  of  this  continental 
district  allows  it  to  extend  to  latitude  49°  north  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lemberg ;  but  on  the  west  of  the 
Carpathians,  where  it  is  extensively  cultivated,  it  does  not 
reach  so  far  north  ;  while  not  only  in  Moravia,  but  also 
in  the  plain  of  Lower  Austria,  its  cultivation  falls  dis- 
tinctly behind  that  of  other  cereals.  In  the  Austrian 
Empire  its  culture  preponderates  only  in  Southern 
Tyrol,  in  the  Alpine  foreland  of  Carniola  and  in  ail  the 


172  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Karst  countries,  from  Goritz  to  Dalmatia  and  Montenegro. 
In  Bosnia  it  occupies  as  much  ground  as  wheat,  which 
outstrips  it  in  Bulgaria.  On  the  other  hand,  maize  is  the 
principal  crop  throughout  all  Servia  and  the  southern 
countries  of  the  realm  of  Hungary  from  Croatia  to  Tran- 
sylvania. On  the  Hungarian  plain  it  is  everywhere  grown 
abundantly,  but,  except  in  some  divisions  to  the  east  of 
the  Theiss,  not  in  excess  of  wheat.  The  whole  area  of 
maize  cultivation  in  Central  Europe  is  more  than  21,000 
square  miles  ;  concentrated  in  one  spot,  it  would  cover  a 
space  larger  than  Bohemia. 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  cultivation  of  maize  goes  the 
cultivation  of  wheat,  even  in  countries  where  the  former 
predominates  and  is  the  food  of  the  population.  In  those 
parts  wheat  is  grown  principally  for  export,  and  only 
secondarily  for  home  consumption.  The  whole  of  Cen- 
tral Europe  lies  within  the  zone  of  growing  wheat,  the  only 
limits  within  its  borders  being  set  by  the  level  above  the 
sea  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  rougher  heights  and 
poorer  soiJs  are  most  suitable  for  rye,  which  is  the  main 
breadstulif  of  Austria  and  Germany.  The  proportional 
areas  of  wheat  and  rye  grown  in  Hungary  are  as  three 
to  one  ;  in  Austria  as  one  to  two ;  and  in  the  German 
Empire  as  one  to  three.  The  Hungarian  cereal  of  the 
plain  is  entirely  wheat,  some  few  tracts  excepted,  such  as 
that  immediately  south-east  of  Pest  and  that  within  the 
bend  of  the  Theiss,  where  rye  predominates.  Rye,  on 
the  other  hand,  takes  the  lead  in  the  Carpathians  and  also 
in  the  greater  part  of  GaHcia.  In  the  Alpine  countries 
wheat  occupies  the  first  place  only  in  Styria  and  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Carniola,  and  among  the  Sudetic 
Mountains  only  in  the  lowest  basin  of  Bohemia.  The 
whole  south-west  of  the  German  Empire,  as  far  as  the 
rivers  Lech,  Neckar,  Tauber,  and  Main,  is  principally  a 
wheat  country,  if  triticuma  spelta  be  included  as  wheat. 
In  North  Germany,  however,  wheat-fields  predominate 
only  in  a  few  favoured  tracts,  the  lowland  of  Dantzig, 
some  marshes  of  the  North  Sea,  the  fertile  plain  of 
Magdeburg   as  far  as  Brunswick,  the  lowest  part  of  the 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


173 


Thuringian  basin,  and  the  cultivated  plains  01  Silesia. 
Everywhere  else  rye  is  the  rule.  The  Netherlands  are 
in  the  same  case.  Only  the  provinces  of  North  and 
South  Holland,  and  in  Belgium  those  of  Brabant,  West 
Flanders,  and  Hainault  grow  wheat. 


I  kVhesfmore  fh&n  /OO  %  &s  Com/oarea^ 

i   SO%fo  /00%         I        I  OVofoSOVo 

Fig.  30. — Proportion  of  Areas  under  Wheat  and  Rye. 


Great  increases  of  population  have  turned  into  recipi- 
ents of  the  alien  surplus  countries  that  formerly  supplied 
others  from  their  abundance.  As  regards  Germany, 
the  year  1861  marks  the  turning-point  when  exports  of 
rye  ceased  to  exceed   the  imports,  and   1875   the   same 


174  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

turning-point  for  wheat.  The  demand  which  has  to  be 
met  in  each  country  depends  not  only  upon  the  number 
of  the  inhabitants,  but  also  upon  the  habits  and  standards 
of  life.  How  different  these  are  is  particularly  cl-early 
marked  in  the  case  of  wheat.  Its  consumption  in  Central 
Europe  decreases  as  we  go  from  south  to  north  and  from 
west  to  east.  Expressed  in  kilograms  per  head  of  popula- 
tion, it  reaches  the  following  annual  totals.  It  stands 
highest  in  Bulgaria  (264),  France  (246),  and  Belgium  (238). 
A  series  with  smaller  demands  is  formed  by  Roumania 
(171),  Servia  (95),  Austria-Hungary  (116),  Switzerland 
(163),  and  Holland  (125).  Germany  falls  far  behind, 
with  only  79,  but  it  consumes  more  rye  (122  kilograms 
per  head)  and  more  potatoes. 

The  total  consumption  of  each  country,  resulting  from 
these  varying  averages  of  demand,  is  confronted  in  the 
different  cases  by  very  different  powers  of  production, 
and  these  are  liable  to  vary,  according  to  weather,  from 
year  to  year.  Only  in  the  south-eastern  countries, 
Bulgaria,  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Hungary  is  there  any 
great  surplus.  The  wealth  of  corn  in  the  Lower  Danubian 
countries  is  the  chief  basis  of  their  economic  position.  They 
have  vied  with  one  another  to  make  opportune  use  of  their 
natural  advantages.  Like  the  centres  of  the  trade  along 
the  Rhine — Mannheim,  Cologne,  and  Urdingen — Pest 
and  the  Roumanian  ports  of  Galatz  and  Braila  have 
modelled  the  organisation  of  their  grain  trade  upon  that 
of  America.  Between  the  years  1881  and  1895 — in  which 
period  the  area  of  its  cultivated  land  increased  by.  12  per 
cent,  and  of  wheat  land  by  44  per  cent. — Hungary  rose 
to  the  position  of  one  of  the  greatest  centres  of  the  European 
corn  trade.  In  addition  to  the  organisation  of  the  corn 
trade,  which  in  Buda-Pest  deals  annually  with  a  million 
tons  of  wheat  alone,  the  position  of  Hungary  in  this 
department  has  been  considerably  strengthened  by  the 
extraordinary  development  of  flour-mills.  Corn  from  the 
south  of  Europe  comes  into  competition  with  that  from 
over-sea,  not  only  in  the  harbours  of  the  North  Sea,  but 
also    in    the    river    towns    of    Cologne,    Frankfort,    and 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


175 


Mannheim,  and  German  agriculture  is  hard  pressed  by 
these  intrusive  floods  of  foreign  products.  This  straitened 
position  is  a  direct  consequence  of  increased  international 
communications,  owing  to  which  every  increase  of  produc- 
tion in  some  distant  zone  directly  affects  the  European 
market.     The  possibility  of  flooding  this  market  with  their 


Fig.  31. — The  Sugar  Production  of  the  World. 


products  has  induced  countries  beyond  the  ocean  to 
enlarge  their  cultivated  areas  rapidly  and  extensively. 
Between  1871  and  1880,  the  United  States,  by  breaking  up 
large  stretches  of  grass-grown  virgin  soil,  doubled  their  corn- 
lands.  The  same  process  followed  later  in  Argentina,  and, 
finally,  great  quantities  of  Indian  wheat  flowed  into 
Europe  and  depressed  prices  to  a  point  at  which  wheat 


176  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

culture  ceased  to  be  remunerative  to  the  German  farmer. 
This  critical  development,  however,  appears  to  have 
passed  its  climax. 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  course  of  the  v^'orld's 
advance  has  raised  up  other  dangers  which  threaten  the 
cultivation  of  Central  European  soil.  One  department  of 
its  manifold  activities,  the  growing  of  beet  and  making  of 
sugar,  which  had  been  carried  to  a  high  point,  is  directly 
endangered.  The  manufacture  of  beet-sugar,  protected 
by  export  bounties  in  the  Central  European  States,  rose 
into  importance  at  the  expense  of  the  old  cane-sugar  from 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  which,  at  one  time,  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  world.  In  the  year  1888  these  two 
main  sources  of  the  sugar  supply  were  almost  equal,  each 
producing  about  2h  millon  tons.  In  1896-97,  however, 
beet-sugar  brought  into  the  markets  of  the  world  4,800,000 
tons,  and  cane-sugar  only  2,400,000  tons.  This  develop- 
ment, attained  almost  entirely  by  the  exertions  of  Central 
Europe,  is  now  suddenly  threatened  with  hindrances  and 
reverses,  owing  to  the  appearance  on  the  scene  of  the 
United  States  as  a  keen  competitor.  To  the  old  sugar 
districts  of  Louisiana,  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii 
and  the  Philippines  are  now  being  added,  lands  well 
adapted  to  this  industry,  which  was  formerly  pursued 
in  them  with  success.  In  a  few  years  the  United  States 
will  be  the  first  sugar-producing  country  of  the  world,  and 
will  be  powerful  enough  to  set  limits  to  the  sugar  trade  of 
other  places.  The  regions  most  threatened  by  this  altera- 
tion of  products  are  the  most  fertile  of  Central  Germany, 
around  Magdeburg,  Central  Silesia,  and  Central  Bohemia. 

In  direct  contrast  to  the  sugar-beet,  which  is  con- 
fined to  the  better  sort  of  soils,  and  usually  promises 
yet  further  improvement  to  them  through  careful  tend- 
ance, stands  the  plebeian  potato,  which  grows  every- 
where. It  has  been  particularly  valuable  in  furnishing 
food  to  the  inhabitants  of  districts  where  the  soil  is  of 
poor  quality  and  the  climate  somewhat  unkindly.  Thus  it 
was  fitted  for  attaining  to  even  greater  importance  in  the 
northern  and  north-western  portions  of  Central   Europe 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


177 


than  maize  has  attained  in  the  south.  The  potato- 
occupies  over  20,000  square  miles  in  Central  Europe, 
thus  resembling  maize  both  in  origin  and  in  extent  of 
cultivation.  It  has  not  the  unlimited  capacity  of  transport 
that  belongs  to  corn  ;  it  is  better  fitted  for  consumption 
in  places  not  far  from  the  spot  where  it  grows.  Potatoes 
are  grown,  not  exclusively  as  a  food  supply,  but  also  as 
the  basis  of  an  important  industry  of  brandy  (Fig.  33). 


Fig.  32. — Cultivation  of  Sugar  Beet  in  Central  Europe.     (After  Engelbrecht.) 


The  two  countries  best  endowed  by  nature  for  the 
preparation  of  beer  are  Bavaria  and  Bohemia.  The  heart 
of  the  Bohemian  hop  country,  50  square  miles  in  extent, 
lies  in  the  district  between  Saaz  and  Leitmeritz — the  tract 
which  also  supplies  the  best  barley  in  Austria.  If  we  then 
cross  the  Fichtel  Gebirge,  we  come,  in  Upper  Franconia, 
near  Bamberg,  upon  the  equally  extensive  German  hop-gar- 
dens which  run  along  the  Main  and  the  Neckar  into  the  Pala- 
tinate and  Alsace,  and  along  the  Altmiihl  to  Upper  and 
Lower  Bavaria.     The  province  of  Posen,  too,  has  abun- 


lyS 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


dant  hops,  but  the  main  centres  of  cultivation  and  sale  are 
in  Bohemia  and  Bavaria.  Nearly  the  fourth  part,  too,  of 
Germany's  barley  grows  in  Bavaria.  Upon  these  essen- 
tials rests  a  vast  production  of  beer.  The  great  activity 
of  manufacture  in  these  districts  corresponds  to  a  high 
rate  of  consumption  (Fig.  34). 

The  beer  countries  of  Central  Europe  alternate  with 
wine  districts.     Measured  by  superficies,  Alsace,  Baden,  and 


^O  %  «n<f  more 


/Oy^to30'^. 


Fig.  33. — Cultivation  of  Potatoes  in  Central  Europe.     (After  Engelbrecht. ) 


Wiirtemberg  are  the  greatest  vine-growing  districts,  con- 
taining together  considerably  the  larger  part  of  the  whole 
wine-producing  area  of  Germany,  which  amounts  to  450 
square  miles  ;  but  the  best  flavoured  wines  grow  more  to 
the  north  in  the  Palatinate,  Rhenish  Hesse,  Nassau,  and  in 
the  Rhine  districts  along  the  principal  valley  of  the  river,  as 
well  as  along  the  Nahe,  Moselle,  and  Ahr.  Wiirzburg  on 
the  Main  also  brings  excellent  grapes  to  the  vine-press. 
Far  more  extensive,  but,  in  general,  less  valuable,  are  the 
vineyards  of  Austria,  of  which  the  larger  part  lie  in  Istria 
and  Dalmatia,    and    only  one-sixth    in  the  famous    wine 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  179 

district  of  Lower  Austria,  while  an  area  still  more 
restricted  furnishes  the  fine  varieties  belonging  to  the  hot 
valley  of  the  Adige  and  the  neighbouring  valleys  of  the 
Southern  Tyrol.  The  highest  of  reputations  has  long 
belonged  to  the  wines  of  Hungary.  But  the  enchant- 
ing girdle  of  vineyards  along  the  mountainous  border 
of  its  plains  has  suffered  even  more  severely  than  Lower 
Austria  from  the  devastations  of  the  phylloxera.  In  1895, 
only  857  square  miles  of  Hungary's  vineyards  were 
planted,  while  424  lay  fallow  or  cleared  out.  Roumania 
has  extensive  vineyards  (616  square  miles),  while 
Mahommedanism  has  not  diminished  vine-growing  in 
Bulgaria  and  Servia  as  it  has  in  Bosnia,  where  it  is 
almost  non-existent.  The  wines  of  all  these  countries, 
however,  though  they  occasionally  pass  into  the  hands  of 
French  wine  merchants  to  be  mixed  with  other  wine,  are 
very  far  from  the  perfection  which,  with  care  and 
attention,  might  be  assured  to  the  produce  of  a  climate 
singularly  favourable  to  the  vine.  Here,  in  the  lower 
countries  of  the  Danube,  wine  is  largely  drunk  by  the 
people,  but  its  predominance  at  their  feasts  is  shared  by  the 
-p\um-hr3.ndy (sh'bovtfz).  Theharvestsof  Roumanian,  Servian, 
and  Bosnian  plum  plantations  are  of  no  less  importance  in 
the  economy  of  these  countries  than  are  the  rich  orchards 
of  fruit  to  the  Southern  Tyrol,  to  the  mountain  border  of 
the  Upper  Rhine  Valley,  or  to  Hungary  (Fig.  35), 

Central  Europe  might  thus  be  divided  into  zones 
according  to  the  prevailing  alcoholic  drinks,  and  the 
civilisation  of  each  of  these  zones  would  undeniably  have 
some  special  characteristics.  No  one  can  fail  to  perceive 
that  the  universal  use  of  wine  has  had  a  refining  effect 
upon  the  low  strata  of  the  French  population,  and  has 
tended  to  soften  the  sharp  social  gradations  which,  in 
other  places,  lead  down  from  wine  through  beer  to 
potato  brandy  The  wine  countries  hold  an  enviable 
position  ;  in  them  even  poverty  has  a  more  cheerful  air 
than  it  has  in  the  home  of  poorer  drinks.  To  Germany 
these  benefits  have  been  given  in  narrower  measure.     But 

perhaps    a    blessing    lay    beneath  these   scantier    endow- 
13 


i8o  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

ments.  Upon  the  poor  soil  of  the  colonised  land  of 
East  Germany,  between  the  Scotch  firs  and  the  potato 
fields,  grew  up  the  powerful  race  whose  fight  for  freedom 
dragged  Germany  from  the  depth  of  oppression'  and 
founded  a  solid  centre  for  the  slowly  ripening  national 
unity. 


^^     C/vx^  Sr^arvdy  mxiJCln^  Dtstricis 
JIo/o  Qarderts 

Fig.  34. — Brandy  and  Beer. 


In  Greek  art  a  wreath   of  ears  adorned  the  brows  of 

the   goddess    who   gave  to    men  the   nourishing   fruit    of 

the  cornfield.     Her  name,  however,  was  De- 

MiNERAL      ^^^j. — j^jQ^j^gj.    Earth.     This  name  bore  wit- 

Products. 

ness  to  the  living  conviction  that  the  creative 

power   by    which    vitality    is    annually    renewed    resides 
in  the  bosom  of  the  earth.     The  truth  of  this  conviction, 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  i8i 

indeed,  goes  much  deeper  than  the  meaning  of  the  old 
myth.  In  measuring  the  possibilities  aiforded  by  any 
country  to  the  progress  of  man,  it  is  not  enough  to  contem- 
plate only  the  gay  and  brightly  coloured  garment  of  vege- 
tation clothing  its  surface  ;  we  must  penetrate  also  to  the 
deepest  and  darkest   recesses.     The  treasures   that   there 


V/neyarc/s 

Fig.  35. — Area  of  Wine  Lands. 

lie  hidden,  not  only  for  the  advancement  of  human  labour 
and  skill,  but  also  for  the  securing  of  human  sustenance 
and  comfort,  are  revealed  even  by  the  springs  that  rise 
thence  to  the  light  of  day. 

Hot  springs  and  mineral  springs  were  prized  by  a 
vague  instinct,  akin  to  a  superstitious  belief,  long  before 
they  began  to  be  considered  by  any  scientific  investiga- 
tion.    Nor  is  this   to  be  regretted.     It  was  in  this  way 


I«2 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


that  a  large  body  Of  experience  came  to  be  accumulated, 
many  facts  established,  and  at  least  the  foundations  for 
further  advance  in  knowledge  everywhere  laid.  Thousands 
of  persons  stream  every  summer  with  the  fullest  conndence 
to  springs  highly  reputed  for  curative  properties,  while 
whole  districts  find  a  field  of  profitable  and  useful  activity 
in  their  baths  and  medicinal  springs.  It  is  of  no  little  im- 
portance to  the  prosperity  of  North-West  Bohemia  that  the 
springs  of  Teplitz,  Carlsbad,  Franzensbad,  Marienbad, 
and  many  others  less  important,  bring  75,000  visitors 
to  spend  some  weeks  there  every  summer,  and  cause 
the  exportation  into  all  parts  of  the  world  of  millions  of 
bottles  of  mineral  water  and  many  hundred  thousand 
pounds  of  natural  salts.  Similar  centres  of  resort,  formed 
by  springs,  lie  in  the  Taunus  and  in  several  valleys 
of  the  Carpathians.  It  is  part  of  the  nature  of  many 
mineral  springs,  and  especially  of  hot  springs,  which 
are  connected  with  lines  of  geological  cleavage  and  dis- 
turbance, to  be  particularly  likely  to  occur  in  scenery 
of  varied  outlines.  The  fresh  air  and  wooded  valleys  of 
a  mountain  range,  as  well  as  the  pleasantness  of  the 
situation,  generally  help  in  effecting  cures.  Comparatively 
few  mineral  springs,  those  mainly  that  arise  from  extensive 
deposits  of  easily  soluble  substances  lying  not  far  below 
the  surface,  occur  in  flat  and  uniform  places.  The  brine 
springs  of  the  Salzkammergut  and  of  Reichenhall, 
embosomed  in  delightful  Alpine  valleys,  may  be  set 
against  the  salt  springs  scattered  over  the  great  lowland 
of  North  Germany. 

Such  springs  often  indicate  the  presence  of  salt  beds, 
that  may  be  worked  profitably  and  satisfy  a  human  need 
which  was  recognised  as  urgent  by  men  even  in  the  days 
when  they  hunted,  kept  herds,  and  fished,  but  which  grew 
more  pressing  as  they  advanced  in  agriculture.  The 
addition  of  salt  appears  to  be  particularly  indispensable  to 
a  vegetable  diet.  The  expression  ''  Salt  and  Bread  "  marks 
the  lowest  demand  for  food  in  an  agricultural  community. 
The  rich  endowment  of  salt  beds  is  therefore  an  im- 
portant part  of  Central   Europe's  natural  wealth.      Long 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  183 

before  the  beginning  of  historical  records,  salt  was 
obtained  from  the  Salzberg  at  Hallstatt  by  the  ancient 
Illyrian  inhabitants,  as  it  was  later  by  the  Celts  of  the 
Alpine  valleys.  The  innumerable  salt  springs  and  in- 
exhaustible salt  bed  of  Transylvania  were  also  unquestion- 
ably known  and  prized  at  a  very  early  period.  The 
Middle  Ages  opened  up  the  vast  salt  bed  of  the  inner  and 
outer  Carpathian  circles,  especially  at  Wieliczka.  But 
not  until  our  own  century  was  light  thrown  upon  the 
immense  stores  of  salt  hidden  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
North  German  lowland.  South  and  Central  Germany 
had  long  contented  themselves  with  salt  boiled  out  of  the 
Swabian,  Franconian,  and  Thuringian  springs,  while  in 
the  supply  of  East  Germany,  not  only  Wieliczka,  but  even 
the  saltpans  of  the  coast  of  Portugal  competed  with 
Thuringia  and  Liineburg.  Only  in  recent  times  has  the 
question  of  salt  been  thoroughly  and  effectually  dealt 
with  in  North  Germany.  One  boring  at  Stassfurt  shows 
a  deposit  of  rock-salt  from  260  feet  below  the  surface 
to  4100  feet  ;  and  the  famous  boring  at  Sperenberg 
reaches  the  rock-salt  at  a  depth  of  300  feet,  and  does 
not  come  to  the  end  of  the  vast  deposit  at  a  depth  of 
5080  feet.  In  the  province  of  Posen,  the  vast  bed  of 
rock-salt  at  Inowrazlaw  supplies  the  eastern  part  of  the 
kingdom. 

The  salt  supply  of  the  German  Empire  not  only  pro- 
vides so  amply  for  its  own  population  that  in  Schleswig- 
Holstein  alone  does  British  salt  enter  into  competition 
with  it ;  it  also  supplies  large  quantities  for  export.  These 
come  principally  from  the  saltworks  of  Schonebeck  and 
Stassfurt  in  the  basin  of  Magdeburg,  whence  the  Elbe 
carries  salt  upwards  to  Bohemia  and  downwards  to 
the  sea  ;  from  the  sea  it  goes  into  Holland  and  Belgium, 
and  considerable  quantities  are  despatched  even  to  British 
India. 

The  centre  of  the  German  salt  industry  lies  in  these 
deposits  of  the  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt  basins  ;  which 
have,  however,  another  special  value  due  to  the  vast 
extent  and  good  preservation  of  a  series  of  strata  lying 


184 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


above  the  bed  of  pure  rock-salt,  and  consisting  of  the  salts 
of  potash  and  magnesia,  so  important  to  the  farmer  and 
manufacturer.  The  industries  supplied  by  these  salts  are 
incomparably  more  varied  than  those  founded  on  metallic 
ores. 

In    Central    Europe    gold    is    only    collected    in    any 
appreciable  quantity  in   Hungary  ;   the  total  in  1896  was 


^^  Cos/  ^dS/ns 
y  /rorj  Ore 


Co/cf  <.^/'/7C 

O   Qu/'cAcs//yer-      ^  Copper- 


ed iSs//fero<j.s  ^eff'o/7.s 
oSa/r 


Fig.  36. — A  Mineral  Map  of  Central  Europe. 


3206  kilograms,  of  which  three-fourths  came  from 
Transylvania,  where  the  ancient  gold  diggings  have  lately 
been  brought  into  a  condition  of  increased  productivity 
by  German  capital  and  German  engineers.  But,  as  re- 
gards the  gold  production  of  the  world,  which  amounts 
to  425,000  kilograms,  Central  Europe  does  not  count 
at  all. 

The  production  of  silver  touched  a  higher  point. 
Germany  set  the  pattern  for  the  whole  world  in  the 
matter    of    silver-mining,    and    keen    invention    had    just 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  185 

perfected  the  processes  of  smelting,  when  the  far  greater 
output  of  the  extensive  American  deposits  began  to  press 
hardly  upon  German  silver  mines.  That  mining  for  silver 
can  still  be  carried  on  at  all  in  Germany  and  yield  a 
modest  profit,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  value  of  silver 
has  depreciated  by  half  in  the  course  of  forty  years,  is 
solely  due  to  a  high  degree  of  refinement  and  to  strict 
economy  of  labour.  But  there  are  years  in  which  no  profit 
at  all  is  gained  by  the  majority  of  the  mines.  The  silver- 
mining  of  Germany  is  now  almost  entirely  confined  to 
Saxony.  Austria  gets  silver  from  the  old  famed  mines  of 
Bohemia.  The  present  produce  of  the  once  celebrated 
silver  mines  of  Servia  and  Bosnia  is  very  small,  and 
there  is  no  prospect  of  any  higher  attainment  for  Central 
Europe  in  this  branch  of  mining. 

Upon  the  yield  of  copper  it  is  possible  to  reckon  more 
surely.  At  the  present  time,  indeed,  copper  is  depressed 
owing  to  the  gigantic  production  of  North  America,  which 
doubled  its  output,  and  secured  the  main  profit  of  the 
unexampled  demand  that  arose  with  the  age  of  electricity 
for  this  electrically  conductive  metal. 

15,000  of  the  18,000  tons  of  copper  produced  in 
Central  Europe  come  from  the  Mansfeld  works.  This  is 
much  less  than  the  annual  demand,  which  amounts,  for 
Central  Europe,  to  about  92,000  tons,  and  for  Germany 
alone  to  over  70,000. 

There  is  only  one  of  all  the  metals  in  the  production 
of  which  Central  Europe  occupies  the  front  rank,  and 
that  one  is  zinc.  Of  the  400,000  tons  produced  annually 
upon  the  earth,  the  German  Empire  supplies  153,000, 
Belgium  113,000,  and  Austria  6400.  But  hardly  7  per 
cent,  of  the  ore  dealt  with  in  the  smelting  works  of 
Belgium  is  native  ;  German  ore  preponderates  over- 
whelmingly. The  principal  mining  places  lie  together  on 
the  Lower  Rhine,  and  again  together  in  Upper  Silesia, 
where  the  three  empires  meet,  and  each  claims  for  itself 
a  part  of  the  metalliferous  district.  There  is  a  much 
poorer  zinc  district  in  the  eastern  Alps  of  Styria  and 
Carniola.     These  provinces  hold  a  particularly  important 


i86  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

place  in  regard  to  the  mines  of  Central  Europe,  because 
they  contain  the  only  large  quicksilver  mine,  at  Idria 
(5600  kilograms). 

Far  more  important  to  the  economic  position  of 
Central  Europe,  however,  is  the  production  of  iron,  and 
full  advantage  has  been  taken  of  all  the  great  improve- 
ments recently  made  in  the  processes  of  smelting.  One 
of  these  improvements  in  particular  has  been  of  decisive 
value,  the  extraction  of  phosphorus  from  the  iron  by 
means  of  the  Thomas  process,  which  came  into  use  in 
1878.  A  great  part  of  the  iron  ore  available  has  only 
attained  its  full  value  since  the  application  of  this  treat- 
ment. This  is  specially  true  of  Germany's  largest  deposits, 
the  extensive  iron  oolites, — the  so-called  "  minette  "  of  the 
Lorraine  plateau,  on  both  sides  of  the  Moselle.  Here 
between  Nancy  and  Luxemburg  lies  the  largest  ironstone 
district  of  Central  Europe.  Of  the  three  Powers  sharing 
this  domain,  France  annually  brings  to  the  surface,  in 
the  department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  above  three  million 
tons,  and  German  Lorraine  and  Luxemburg  each  above 
five  million  tons  in  the  year  :  more,  that  is,  than  is  raised 
in  the  whole  of  the  remaining  territory  of  the  German 
customs  union.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulty  of  bring- 
ing suitable  fuel  (coke)  from  the  Rhine  district  and 
Belgium,  German  Lorraine  and  Luxemburg,  although 
they  export  a  large  part  of  their  ore  to  Belgium,  France 
and  the  districts  of  the  Saar  and  Ruhr,  have  also  a  con- 
siderable output  of  pig-iron.  Of  the  remaining  beds  of 
iron  scattered  through  Germany,  those  of  Nassau  and 
others  in  the  north-west  of  the  Hartz  Mountains,  between 
the  rivers  Ocker  and  Leine,  are  the  most  important. 

But  no  single  point  of  the  German  Empire  can  com- 
pare, as  to  quantity  and  quality  of  iron  ore,  with  that 
vast  Austrian  storehouse,  the  famous  metalliferous  moun- 
tain of  Eisenerz  in  Styria,  on  the  slope  of  which  300,000 
tons  of  excellent  siderite  are  annually  dug,  in  open 
workings,  from  seventeen  terraces  cut  out  of  a  stratum 
200  to  400  feet  deep.  This  bed  is  a  link  in  the  chain 
of  iron  deposits  that  may  be  followed  for  a  long  distance 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  187 

through  the  Eastern  Alps.  Next  to  Styria,  Bohemia^ 
especially  the  old  sedimentary  basin  of  the  interior, 
furnishes  the  largest  provision  of  iron  to  be  found  in  the 
Austrian  half  of  the  empire.  Hungary  falls  but  little 
behind.  Of  the  mineral  treasures  of  Upper  Hungary 
the  iron  alone  appears  to  have  remained  up  to  the 
present  time  inexhaustible.  It  supplies  not  only  the 
works  at  Salgo  Taryan,  but  also  those  of  Moravia  at 
Witkowitz.  The  greatest  Hungarian  ironworks,  however, 
are  in  Transylvania,  at  Vajda  Hunyad,  south  of  the 
Marosh.  A  suspension  railway  passing  over  many  valley 
gorges  brings  the  abundant  ore,  rich  in  manganese 
and  free  from  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  from  Gyalar^ 
and  also  the  charcoal  for  smelting  it.  These  works  only 
make  pig-iron,  which  is  sent  away  to  other  centres. 

These  productive  iron  beds  of  the  Danubian  monarchy 
are  now  beginning  to  find  competition  in  the  great  beds 
at  Varesh  in  Bosnia,  which  lie  4000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level. 

Thus,  wherever  hard  rock  forms  the  surface  of  the 
land,  scarcely  any  part  of  Central  Europe  is  entirely 
without  iron  ore.  The  finest  beds,  however,  do  not 
coincide  with  those  of  fossil  fuels,  and  the  working  of  iron 
is  more  closely  bound  up  with  the  presence  of  fuel 
than  with  that  of  ore.  Even  where  the  ore  is  rich 
it  pays  better  to  take  it  to  the  coal  than  to  bring  the 
coal  to  it  ;  and  that  although  improved  processes  have 
sensibly  diminished  the  consumption  of  coal.  If  coke 
has  to  be  brought  from  a  distance,  the  later  stages  of 
iron  manufacture  can  only  be  carried  on  at  a  profit  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  iron  bed,  if  the  final 
operations  can  be  made  to  follow  directly  upon  the  first 
melting. 

The  importance  of  coal  and  its  superiority  to  other 
fuels  rest  upon  its  combination  of  high  heating  capacity 
with  smallness  of  bulk  and  weight.  These  advantages 
are  especially  valuable  when  the  object  is  to  produce 
heat  to  be  transformed,  through  the  agency  of  steam, 
into  mechanical  energy  for  the  service  of  man.     Every 


i88  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

step  which  has  tended  to  estabhsh  the  superiority  in 
manufacture  on  a  large  scale  of  steam-power  to  human 
strength  and  skill,  has  also  tended  to  crowd  together 
the  heavier  industrial  processes  upon  those  lands  whose 
surface  covers  deposits  of  fossilised  fuel.  But  coal  is 
not  only  a  means  of  labour ;  because  it  is  this,  it  is 
also  a  commercial  commodity,  and  that  country  which 
can  most  easily  distribute  to  others  its  surplus  coal 
gains  a  commercial  advantage.  England  exports  cheaply 
because  she  weights  the  merchant  ships  that  carry  her 
manufactured  products  with  coal  instead  of  with  ballast  ; 
she  imports  cheaply  because  her  ships  carry  coal  to  the 
foreign  ports  whose  products  they  come  to  fetch. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  not  only  to  the  success  of 
industrial  works,  but  also  to  the  mercantile  position  of 
Central  Europe,  that  its  northern  portion,  Belgium  and 
North  Germany,  forms  one  of  the  richest  coal  districts  of 
the  world.  To  these  countries  belongs  the  principal  share 
in  the  belt  of  coal  deposits  that  accompanies  the  outer 
border  of  the  Mittel  Gebirge.  Along  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  the  Ardennes  and  the  Lower  Rhine  plateau  the 
coal  measures  continue  from  Belgium  to  the  basin  of  Aix 
and  the  Ruhr  district.  Following  the  border  of  the 
mountains,  we  come,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Weser,  to 
the  smaller  and  newer  beds  of  Hanover.  The  outer 
edge  of  the  Bohemian  group  is  encircled  by  the  deposits 
of  Saxony,  and  of  Lower  Silesia  at  Waldenburg.  A 
particularly  rich  coalfield  stretches  from  the  eastern  end 
of  the  Sudetic  Mountains  across  Moravia  .and  Austrian 
Silesia  through  Prussian  Upper  Silesia  to  Russia  and 
Galicia.  In  the  interior  of  the  Mittel  Gebirge  are  two 
districts  that  have  extensive  coal  deposits :  Bohemia, 
which,  besides  sharing  in  the  Waldenburg  bed,  includes 
on  the  west  within  its  borders  considerable  deposits  of 
its  own,  between  Pilsen  and  Bushterad,  and  the  far  richer 
district  of  the  Saar,  where  the  boundaries  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  the  Palatinate,  and  Alsace-Lorraine  meet.  The 
centre  of  production  lies  at  Saarbriicken.  With  its  army 
of  half  a  million  workers  and  its  total  yearly  output  of 


ECONOxMIC   GEOGRAPHY  189 

almost  120  millions  of  tons,  Central  Europe  takes  the 
third  place  after  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
among  the  coal-producing  divisions  of  the  world. 

Important,  however,  as  its  treasures  of  coal  must 
long  be,  their  economic  value  is  determined  not  exclu- 
sively by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  coal  ;  much  also 
depends  upon  geographical  position  ;  upon  whether  the 
coal-beds  occur  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  other 
raw  material  for  the  establishment  of  large  works,  and 
whether,  on  the  other  hand,  a  large  market  for  the  pro- 
duct of  such  works  lies  near,  or  at  least  within  reach  of 
cheap  transport.  In  both  these  respects  most  of  the  coal- 
fields of  Central  Europe  are  more  unfavourably  situated 
than  those  of  Great  Britain,  for  except  in  Belgium  and  in 
Westphalia,  they  all  lie  at  a  distance  from  the  sea.  The 
coalfields  of  the  German  Empire  are  dispersed  into  the 
farthest  corners  of  its  domain,  so  near  the  boundaries  that 
a  part  of  the  strata  sometimes  extend  into  foreign  terri- 
tory. The  central  parts  of  North  Germany  have  no  other 
coal  measures  at  command  than  the  modest  ones  of 
Saxony. 

The  drawback  of  this  want  of  concentration  in  the 
position  of  the  German  beds  of  hard  coal  is  mitigated, 
however,  by  one  great  fact,  the  existence  of  the  most 
extensive  beds  of  lignite  on  the  Continent.  Those  of  the 
Brunswick  and  Magdeburg  zone,  and  of  the  bay  of  the 
lowlands  between  Halle  and  Leipzig,  assure  an  invaluable 
support  to  the  great  agricultural  and  chemical  under- 
takings of  the  productive  countries  along  the  middle 
Elbe.  Their  southerly  districts,  and  the  manufactures  of 
Dresden  in  particular,  are  supplied  by  the  large  quantities 
brought  down  the  river  from  the  lignite  district  of  Bohemia. 
The  foreland  of  the  Alps  possesses  deposits  of  value  in 
Upper  Austria  ;  so  does  the  interior  of  the  mountains  in 
Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola.  In  the  case  of  Hungary, 
too,  the  place  of  the  old  coal  measures  is  supplied  by 
later  formations  :  on  the  one  hand  by  the  liassic  beds 
at  Fiinfkirchen  and  the  Banat,  and  on  the  other  hand 
by  the  Tertiary  coal  on  the  border  of  the  great  lowland, 


190  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

and  in  the  Petrosheny  valley  at  the  far  south-western 
corner  of  Transylvania. 

The  outer  circle  of  the  Carpathians  frorii  Galicia  to 
Roumania  is  poor  in  solid  fossil  fuels.  These  lands,  how- 
ever, have  a  compensation,  for  in  them  are  to  be  found  the 
only  mineral  oil-springs  of  any  value  in  Central  Europe. 
From  the  Poprad  to  the  Pruth  dark  natural  oil  appears 
at  many  points  between  the  strata  of  the  Carpathian  rock, 
and  borings  carried  out  on  the  Canadian  system  to  a 
depth  of  2 GOO  feet  have  in  some  places  drawn  vast  foun- 
tains of  the  valuable  fluid  from  the  great  underground 
reservoirs.  The  most  productive  wells  of  petroleum  lie 
in  the  district  of  the  Dniester,  around  Drohobycz  and 
Boryslaw.  In  the  same  neighbourhood  is  found  the 
greatest  quantity  of  mineral  wax  (ozokerit).  Roumania 
has  also  opened  numerous  oilpits. 

Besides  the  mineral  wealth  of  various  kinds  gained  by 
subterranean  mining.  Central  Europe  possesses  a  number 
of  useful  stones  which  are  quarried,  and  of  which  the 
unequal  distribution  necessitates  transport.  The  freestone 
and  marble  columns  of  cathedrals,  the  slated  and  tiled 
roofs  of  towns,  the  materials  that  pave  their  streets  and 
squares,  the  vast  quantities  of  lime  and  cement  used  in 
their  buildings,  all  tell  of  the  country's  wealth  in  every 
kind  of  building  material,  and  of  the  labour  devoted  by 
generations  to  making  it  useful  both  at  home  and  in  far 
countries.  Without  attempting  to  dive  into  the  whirl- 
pool of  these  unceasing  movements,  we  may  just  note  at 
this  point  that  some  of  the  substances  drawn  from  the 
earth  of  Central  Europe  possess  a  rarity  that  brings  them 
into  international  commerce,  and  causes  them  to  travel  to 
the  very  Antipodes.  This  is  the  case  not  only  with  the 
oldest  product  that  was  exported  from  German  shores — the 
amber,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  Samland — but  also  with  the 
lithographic  stone  of  Solnhofen,  a  well-stratified  lime- 
stone, superior  in  fineness  and  evenness  of  grain  to  any 
other  in  the  world.  These  two  substances  represent 
widely  differing  periods  of  civilisation.  Remote  ages 
took  pleasure  in  the  brightness  and  transparency  of  the 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  191 

gum  washed  out  by  the  waves  from  the  blue  earth  of  the 
steep  shore  and  cast  at  the  feet  of  man,  a  ready-made 
ornament,  but  the  Solnhofen  stone  could  be  prized  only 
by  a  community  that  had  attained  a  high  state  of  civilisa- 
tion. Not  what  a  substance  is  by  nature,  but  what  is  made 
of  it  by  man  fixes  the  value  of  it.  It  is  time  to  pass  on 
from  the  natural  foundations  of  economic  life  to  the  active 
and  continuous  labours  whereby  that  life  is  perfected. 

It  is  only  in  the  south-eastern  countries  of  Central 
Europe  that  primitive  methods  of  production  (agricul- 
ture, cattle-breeding,  forestry,  and  fishing) 
still  maintain  a  marked  preponderance  over  iNniisTRv 
other  occupations  (in  Hungary  74,  and  in 
Austria  62  per  cent.).  In  Switzerland,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  position  among  the  industries  of  the  country  held 
by  such  employments  is  only  relatively  superior,  42  per 
cent,  as  compared  with  36  per  cent,  of  manufacture 
and  13  per  cent,  of  commerce.  In  Germany  and  Prussia 
agricultural  production  and  trade  have  come  into  equili- 
brium, each  employing  40  per  cent,  of  the  population  ;  so 
they  have  in  Holland,  where  each  accounts  for  32  per 
cent. ;  while  in  Saxony  manufacture  (60  per  cent.)  forms 
the  main  basis  of  economic  life.  Here  agriculture  and 
kindred  employments  fall  quite  into  the  background,  and 
account  for  only  18  per  cent,  of  the  people's  working 
powers.  This  is  a  lower  proportion  than  even  in  Belgium, 
where  manufacture  outstrips  agriculture  not  only  in  the 
value  of  the  products,  but  also  in  the  number  of  hands 
employed,  though  statistics  are  wanting  to  furnish  a 
clearer  view  of  their  relation.  To  journey  through 
Central  Europe  from  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  to  the 
Scheldt  is  to  take  a  historical  survey  of  several  past  cen- 
turies coexistent  in  the  present  day.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  transformation  of  Central  Europe 
from  a  region  under  primitive  conditions  into  an  arena 
of  eager  industrial  activity  has  been  visibly  accelerated. 

This  transition  indeed  is  not  equally  perceptible  in  all 
parts  even  of  the  most  advanced  countries.  There  are 
places  in  which  the  natural  powers  are  inadequate  to  the 


192  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

demands  of  human  labour.  The  wind  itself,  though  the 
atmospheric  tendency  to  equilibrium  causes  it  to  blow  for 
long  distances  over  wide  stretches  of  country,  is  not 
everywhere  strong  enough  and  constant  enough  to  be 
counted  upon  as  a  regular  and  trustworthy  fellow-worker. 

Unlike  the  shoreless  streams  of  the  air,  rivers  pass 
through  the  countries  only  as  narrow  bands  of  living 
power.  And  in  regard  to  their  employment  the  claims 
of  productive  industry  and  of  traffic  used  to  be  irrecon- 
cilably opposed  to  each  other.  Navigation  demanded 
the  freedom  of  rivers,  and  industry  desired  to  close  them 
with  dams.  In  general  the  interests  of  inter-communi- 
cation won  the  day  upon  easily  navigable  rivers,  and 
industry  was  only  left  unhindered  to  place  her  works, 
like  beads  upon  separated  strings,  along  the  upper  water- 
courses where  the  fall  was  rapid.  The  mountain  valleys 
thus  came  to  be  filled  with  water-driven  works,  the  small 
and  divided  power  being  decidedly  favourable  to  marked 
subdivision  of  trades.  But  on  large  rivers  new  undertak- 
ings for  employing  water-power  in  the  service  of  modern 
industry  can  be  set  up  but  rarely,  and  only  when  there 
is  some  very  special  natural  fitness.  Such  was  the  case 
with  the  strong  rapids  at  the  town  of  Schaffhausen,  two 
miles  above  the  Falls  of  the  Rhine.  The  old  water- 
works, erected  in  i860,  soon  raised  the  town  to  a  centre 
of  varied  industries,  but  their  progress  only  attained  full 
development  after  the  introduction  of  electricity  for  the 
conveyance  of  power.  A  force  of  2400  horse-power  is 
now  available  in  the  town,  and  one  of  4000  in  the 
aluminium  works  at  the  Rhine  fall.  The  civilised 
countries  of  Central  Europe  are  rivalling  one  another  in 
the  haste  with  which  they  are  setting  water-power  to  work, 
and  providing  electricity  for  the  lighting  of  towns,  for 
railways,  for  machinery,  and  for  electro-chemical  works. 

The  Alpine  countries,  above  all,  are  making  use  of 
the  new  discovery  that  in  their  thundering  torrents,  their 
rivers,  well  supplied  even  in  summer  from  the  melting 
glaciers,  and  their  vast  still  lakes,  they  possess  not  only  an 
adornment    of    the   landscape  but  also    an    inexhaustible 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  193 

storehouse  of  mechanical  energy.  Tyrol  and  the  Vorarl- 
berg  are  very  active,  but  Switzerland  holds  the  first  place. 
The  works  of  Geneva — which  will  soon  be  able  to  put 
12,000  horse-power  at  the  disposal  of  the  many  trades 
belonging  to  a  varied  and  highly  refined  stage  of  manu- 
facture— and  those  of  Yverdon — which  derive  1 800  horse- 
power from  the  Orbe,  and  use  it  to  provide  twenty 
different  places  with  light  and  energy — are  all  strongly 
marked  by  the  characteristic  feature  of  power  produced 
in  this  way,  by  the  possibility,  that  is  to  say,  of  far- 
reaching  division. 

A  particularly  promising  centre  of  industry  will  arise 
at  the  Iron  Gates  at  Orshova.  Only  difficulty  with  Hun- 
gary has  thus  far  delayed  the  utilisation  of  the  river  power 
upon  the  Servian  shore,  where  an  enterprising  engineer 
from  Brunswick  has  made  a  plan  for  obtaining  20,000 
horse-power,  under  unusually  favourable  conditions. 

In  all  this  utilisation  of  the  natural  force  of  water,  the 
mountain  lands  of  the  Alpine  system  must  in  the  course 
of  nature  take  the  lion's  share.  Even  in  Germany  these 
sources  of  power  are  much  poorer.  Only  its  Alpine 
foreland,  with  the  rivers  of  the  mountain  country,  has 
any  valuable  endowment  of  water-power.  The  rapids  of 
the  Rhine  at  Rheinfelden,  and  the  rivers  Lech  and  Isar 
offer  power  on  a  large  scale  suitable  for  the  establishment 
of  electrical  works.  Munich  alone  among  the  great 
tow^ns  of  this  continent  has  an  opportunity  offered  it, 
by  the  delightful  fall  of  the  foaming  Isar,  of  developing 
mighty  electric  powers.  Everything  offered  by  the  rivers 
of  the  Mittel  Gebirge  falls  very  far  behind.  Even  the 
Lauffen  rapids  (at  Heilbronn)  are  famed  in  the  history 
of  electrical  distribution  only  because  from  them  the  first 
attempt  was  made  to  apply  electric  power  at  a  distance, 
the  power  supplied  by  the  falls  of  the  Neckar  being  used 
in  1 89 1  for  an  exhibition  installation  at  Frankfort  on 
the  Main,  no  miles  away.  Projects  for  making  rivers 
with  less  fall  available  by  means  of  large  dams  are  not 
wanting,  although  the  difficulties  of  such  undertakings 
threaten  to  outweigh  the  advantages. 


194  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

The  northern  part  of  Central  Europe  must  try  to 
console  itself  by  remembering  that  it  is  richer  in  another 
source  of  power :  in  treasures  of  fossil  fuel.  In  the 
present  day  coal  still  has  the  first  voice  in  deciding  the 
local  distribution  and  practical  shape  of  industrial  life. 
And  while  the  possibility  of  transmitting  the  electric 
current  to  a  distance  lessens  the  dependence  of  industry 
upon  the  spot  where  the  power  is  generated,  fuel  is 
susceptible  of  no  such  cheap  and  easy  removal. 

The  limits  of  a  coalfield  are  therefore  in  general  but 
little  smaller  than  those  of  the  trade  directly  called  into 
existence  by  it,  and  of  the  denser  population  to  which 
this  in  turn  gives  rise.  Typical  examples  of  these  fields 
of  intensified  labour  are  furnished  by  the  following 
industrial  districts  of  Central  Europe  :  that  of  Hainault 
(Mons-Charleroi)  ;  that  of  Liege  and  Aix  ;  that  of  the 
Lower  Rhine,  Wupper,  and  Ruhr  ;  the  basin  of  the  Saar ; 
the  district  of  Chemnitz  and  Zwickau ;  that  of  Upper 
Silesia,  and  that  of  Bohemia.  Certain  characteristics  are 
common  to  all  of  them,  and  impress  themselves  irresistibly 
upon  the  general  aspect  and  upon  social  life,  in  spite  of 
the  great  natural  differences  existing  between  the  fertile 
valley  of  the  Meuse,  the  intersected  tablelands  at  the 
northern  foot  of  the  Erz  Gebirge,  and  the  melancholy 
woods  of  Scotch  fir  that  border  the  sluggish  watercourses 
of  the  Russian  frontier. 

The  most  striking  feature  is  everywhere  a  rapidly 
advancing  increase  in  population,  arising  since  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  filling  whole  districts  so 
thickly  that  in  some  places  there  are  looo  and  even  2000 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile.  In  places  where  for- 
merly stood  little  hamlets  of  only  a  few  houses  great 
townships  of  20,000  to  50,000  inhabitants  have  sprung 
,  up  like  mushrooms  within  the  last  two  or  three  de- 
cades. Real  towns,  however,  they  are  not.  Their 
irregular  boundaries,  the  absence  of  enclosure,  their 
casual  unplanned  growth,  all  show  a  lack  of  comple- 
tion, and  a  glance  suffices  to  tell  us  with  what  difficulty 
this   conglomeration    of    mines,   foundries,   factories,    and 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  195 

worker-colonies  manages  to  meet  the  sudden  onset  of  so 
many  varying  demands.  A  single  generation  has  to 
undertake  the  supply  of  water,  canals,  lighting,  paving, 
schools,  and  churches,  things  which  in  a  quietly  growing 
town  arise  gradually,  and  of  which  the  cost  is  spread 
easily  over  a  course  of  centuries.  Industry  itself  shows 
kindred  features  in  these  regions.  Large  concerns  and 
great  capitals  dominate  ;  regiments  of  workers  obey  either 
joint-stock  companies  or  industrial  kings.  Some  of  the 
latter  are  the  old  landlords,  whose  slackened  sails  re- 
ceived a  fresh  wind  from  the  sudden  rise  of  industrialism, 
while  some  have  worked  their  way  up  from  among  the 
heroes  of  labour. 

As  in  the  methods  of  industry,  so  in  the  choice  of  its 
field,  a  certain  similarity  prevails  in  all  the  great  industrial 
districts.  A  widely  ramifying  iron  trade  everywhere 
occupies  the  first  place,  and  supplies  every  branch  of 
life,  of  labour,  and  of  communication,  with  tools,  machines, 
railways,  and  conveyance,  while  it  furnishes  weapons  and 
defensive  material  for  the  national  protection.  To  this 
trade,  which  attains  in  Central  Europe  the  highest  point 
of  diversity  and  of  efficiency,  belong  the  largest  workshops 
of  the  Continent.  The  most  extreme  example — which, 
however,  is  but  an  example — of  the  development  of 
manufacture  on  a  large  scale  in  the  coalfields  of  Central 
Europe,  is  furnished  by  the  Krupp  cast-steel  works  at 
Essen,  where  23,000  workpeople  are  employed,  and 
which  provide  a  livelihood  for  80,000  souls. 

In  Upper  Silesia,  as  in  Belgmm,  zincworks  and  lead- 
works  have  been  placed  near  to  ironworks.  Chemical 
works,  too,  are  frequently  established  near  to  the  iron 
forges,  for  ever  since  so  much  care  has  been  devoted  to 
obtaining  and  utilising  the  secondary  products  of  the  smelt- 
ing process,  they  have  been  very  closely  connected  with 
them.  Among  the  various  products  of  chemical  industry 
in  which  Germany  has  won  a  leading  position,  aniline 
dyes,  obtained  from  coal  tar,  take  a  high  place.  The  use 
of  vegetable  and  metallic  dyes  has  been  greatly  restricted 
by  these.  Not  infrequently  these  coal-tar  colours  are 
14 


196  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

successfully  applied  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  land 
from  which  their  raw  material  was  dug.  In  many  coal- 
fields a  considerable  manufacture  of  textiles  has  arisen, 
generally  carried  on,  however,  a  little  outside  the  sooty 
atmosphere  of  the  furnaces.  Nearly  all  the  conspicuous 
trade  centres  have  their  textile  satellites. 

The  coal-beds  of  Central  Europe,  including  the  larger 
lignite  deposits,  may  thus  be  indicated  as  the  main  seats 
of  its  labour  and  manufacture,  far  surpassing  in  number 
and  in  the  value  of  their  products  those  works  which  are 
dependent  upon  water-power.  Trade,  however,  depends 
not  only  upon  the  powers  afforded  by  nature  in  the  way 
of  moving  water  or  heat  production  ;  it  depends  in  no 
less  a  degree  upon  the  accumulation  of  the  various  raw 
materials  destined  to  undergo  changes  and  improvements. 
For  this  reason  other  trade  centres  adjoin  themselves 
preferably  to  large  nuclei  of  traffic.  Large  towns  are  the 
foci  in  which  are  gathered  together  the  economic 
treasures  and  powers  of  a  wide  district ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  demands  arising  from  the  needs  of  a 
whole  community  also  concentrate  themselves,  and  are 
in  a  position  to  call  forth  the  echo  of  labours  answering 
to  their  wants.  Because  of  these  things,  and  of  the 
accumulation  of  raw  material  even  from  very  remote 
places,  an  enormous  variety  of  industrial  activities  are 
set  free,  the  variety  of  which  is  but  very  imperfectly 
apprehended,  not  only  by  chance  visitors  to  a  great  town, 
whose  impressions  are  naturally  hasty  and  superficial, 
but  also  by  the  majority  of  the  townspeople  themselves. 
The  particular  merit  of  urban  industry  lies  less  in  the 
bulk  of  material  dealt  with  than  in  extreme  finish  and 
refinement  of  its  execution,  and  in  the  combination  of 
products  arising  from  several  simple  processes  into 
complex  products,  which  both  correspond  to  the  heightened 
wants  and  satisfy  the  tastes  of  a  civilised  society.  It  is  a 
special  privilege  of  cities  to  be  centres  of  a  nation's 
intellectual  life ;  all  the  various  branches  of  commerce 
directly  subserving  it  reach  their  highest  perfection  in 
towns,  and  some  of  them  assume  international  importance. 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  197 

In  the  immeasurable  empire  of  productive  labour,  every 
city  chooses  its  different  province,  according  to  external 
circumstances  or  to  the  tastes  and  aptitudes  of  its  in- 
habitants. This  choice  decides  the  individual  character — 
one  might  almost  say,  the  personality — of  the  city.  If 
we  consider  that  Central  Europe  contains  two  metropolises 
each  having  more  than  one  and  a  half  million  inhabitants, 
and  that  in  the  fifty-three  towns  whose  population  ex- 
ceeds 100,000  there  are  more  than  15,000,000  persons, 
or  a  ninth  part  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  region,  while 
that  of  these  fifty-three  towns  only  ten,  and  those  some 
of  the  less  important,  have  arisen  in  or  very  near  to  coal- 
fields, we  shall  admit  that  the  development  of  urban  life, 
in  the  great  commercial  centres  is  a  considerable  and 
direct  cause  of  industrial  activity. 

Not  all  industries,  however,  arise  from  positive  natural 
aptitudes.  Not  wealth  alone,  but  also  poverty  is  a  cause 
of  production.  It  is  so  with  the  domestic  industries  in  the 
mountains  of  Central  Europe,  the  weaving  villages  of  the 
Rhon  and  the  Sudetic  Mountains,  the  bobbin-lace  and 
embroideries  of  the  Erz  Gebirge,  Appenzell,  and  Flanders, 
the  toy  manufacture  of  Thuringia,  the  watchmaking  of 
the  Black  Forest  and  the  Jura,  and  the  wire-drawing 
among  the  Slovaks  of  Upper  Hungary.  However 
different  the  state  of  these  industries,  some  of  which  are 
happily  flourishing,  while  others  are  hopelessly  decay- 
ing— the  majority  do  but  very  barely  maintain  their 
existence — they  all  have  this  in  common  :  that  they  owe 
their  growth  not  to  the  stimulus  of  any  valuable  natural 
gift  which  invited  utilisation,  but  to  that  lack  of  natural 
resources  in  absolutely  poor  or  relatively  over-populated 
parts  by  which  an  industrial  people,  satisfied  with 
moderate  returns  for  labour,  were  driven  to  seek  some 
occupation,  and  to  attain  a  high  degree  of  skill  and 
dexterity  in  it.  There  is  a  future  only  for  such  branches 
as  can  reap  some  advantage  from  the  progress  around 
them,  and  adopting  the  services  of  machinery  and  of  the 
modern  supply  of  power  can  restrict  handwork  to  those 
departments  which    demand    intelligent    skill    or    artistic 


198  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

sense  of  beauty,  into  which  mechanical  power  can  never 
force  its  conquering  way.  The  materials  wrought  up  by 
these  domestic  industries  are  generally  of  small  value, 
and  obtained  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the 
worker  ;  but  sometimes  an  industry  will  maintain  itself 
out  of  the  beaten  tracks  of  larger  trades,  drawing  its 
material  from  long  distances,  sending  out  its  products 
into  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  having  nothing  on  the 
spot  but  intelligence,  training,  and  industry.  One  instance 
may  suffice.  At  Ruhla,  in  the  Thuringian  Forest,  there  is 
a  flourishing  manufacture  of  pipes  and  cigar-holders  ;  it 
imports  meerschaum  from  Asia  Minor,  amber  from  the 
Baltic,  cherry  wood  from  Lower  Austria,  brass  plates 
from  Augsburg,  rosin  from  India,  cedar  wood  from 
the   Lebanon,  and  birch  wood  from  Sweden. 

This  is  a  triumph  of  labour,  and  we  may  well  be 
set  thinking,  when  we  find  a  manufacture  like  this,  far 
inland,  with  so  little  material  foundation  and  no  support 
from  the  forces  of  nature,  coming  into  rank  with  those 
that  draw  their  raw  material  from  abroad.  The  larger 
branches  of  industry  in  Central  Europe  do  so  on  a  much 
larger  scale.  In  regard  to  the  metal  trades  this  fact  has 
already  been  pointed  out.  Not  only  tin,  of  which  prac- 
tically none  exists  in  Central  Europe,  and  copper  are 
imported  in  very  great  quantities,  but  in  the  interchange 
of  iron  ores  and  pig  iron  the  imports  far  outweigh  the 
exported  surplus.  Particularly  varied  are  the  materials 
imported  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  great  chemical 
industries.  In  trades  that  deal  with  fats  and  oil  the 
old  native  materials  have  been  superseded  in  a  striking 
degree  by  tropical  products.  Textile  industries,  too, 
make  a  large  demand  upon  imported  material,  and  that 
even  in  departments  in  which  Central  Europe  used 
formerly  to  be  self-sufficing.  Its  trade  in  flax,  hemp, 
and  wool,  which  about  the  middle  of  the  century  was 
centrifugal  in  distribution,  has  become  completely  cen- 
tripetal, and  seeks  supplies  from  great  distances.  The 
production  of  silk,  originally  foreign  to  this  region,  has 
in  course  of  time  undergone  displacement       A  zone  of 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY  199 

silkworm  farming,  silk  production,  and  silk  spinning  has 
arisen  in  Southern  Europe.  The  industry  has  spread 
from  Italy  into  the  Southern  Tyrol  and  Ticino  ;  and  to 
the  north  of  this  zone  begins  a  belt  of  silk  weaving, 
widest  in  France,  but  continuing  into  Switzerland  and 
along  the  Lower  Rhine.  Far  more  general  in  its  extent 
and  more  important,  as  occupying  a  far  larger  part  of 
the  population,  is  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  all  the  raw 
material  of  which  comes  from  over-seas.  Between 
400,000  and  450,000  tons  of  raw  cotton  are  imported 
in  the  course  of  a  year  by  Central  Europe.  The  prin- 
cipal seats  of  this  trade  are  in  the  Rhine  districts — North 
Switzerland,  Upper  Alsace,  and  the  industrial  regions  of  the 
Lower  Rhine — and,  farther  to  the  east,  in  Wiirtemberg, 
Saxony,  and  North  Bohemia.  A  companion  industry, 
likewise  resting  entirely  upon  imported  raw  material,  and 
rising  rapidly  into  importance,  is  the  manufacture  of  jute. 
The  greatest  change  which  has  arisen  during  the  last 
decades  in  the  relation  of  the  progressive  countries  of 
Central  Europe  to  the  rest  of  the  world  lies  in  the 
unusually  great  increase  in  the  importation  of  foreign 
raw  materials.  This  is  too  great  to  be  explained  merely 
by  the  concurrent  increase  of  population.  Far  rather 
does  it  mainly  indicate  a  rise  in  demands  on  life,  in  the 
standard  of  living,  and  in  the  material  progress  of  the 
nations.  Central  Europe  has  become  more  dependent 
upon  foreign  countries,  not  only  for  food,  but  also  for 
the  supply  of  other  most  important  necessaries  of  life. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  this  relation  to  foreign 
countries  beyond  the  sea  cannot  consist  only  in  a  one- 
sided importation  of  their  products,  but  that  there  must 
be  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  exportation  of  Central 
European  manufactures.  The  greater  part  of  Central 
Europe  has  already  reached  that  phase  of  development 
in  which  agriculture  no  longer  occupies  the  first  place 
as  a  basis  of  the  social  life  of  the  people,  but  has  been 
in  great  part  superseded  by  industrial  activities  which 
must  necessarily  seek  a  market  for  their  products  beyond 
their  own  borders. 


200  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

The  great  impulse  received  by  German  industrialism 
in  the  last  fifteen  years  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge. 
Between  the  census  of  occupations  taken  in  1882  and 
that  taken  in  1895  the  number  of  persons  engaged 
in  industrial  calHngs  had  increased  by  igh  per  cent. 
During  that  time  the  total  imports  of  the  Empire — if  we 
take  the  average  of  the  three  years  from  1882-84  ^^'^^ 
the  three  from  1895—97,  so  as  to  exclude  temporary 
variations — had  risen  41I  per  cent.,  though  the  importa- 
tion of  foreign  manufactured  goods  had  diminished  by 
12  per  cent.  But  the  export  of  German  manufactured 
goods,  too,  shows  a  slight  decrease  in  value,  from  2304 
to  2262  million  marks,  or  2  per  cent.!  Surprising 
as  this  result  may  appear,  it  places  beyond  all  question 
the  fact  that  the  recent  increase  in  German  manufacture 
is  absorbed  in  great  measure  by  the  increased  consump- 
tion of  the  German  people,  among  whom  not  only  the 
actual  numbers,  but  also  the  standards  of  life  have  risen 
considerably.  If  this  is  so,  the  balance  of  imports  over 
exports  in  the  German  Empire  must  tend  more  and  more 
towards  a  preponderance  of  imports.  And  this  is  actually 
the  case.  While  in  1882-84  ^^e  exports  were  still  equal 
to  97  per  cent,  of  the  imports,  in  1895-97  they  equalled 
only  80  per  cent.  Germany  shares  this  condition  with 
many  countries  of  high  economic  development.  In  those 
of  Central  Europe  the  annual  sums  of  import  and  export 
(precious  metals  excluded),  stated  in  millions  of  the  cur- 
rent coin  of  each  country,  were,  according  to  the  latest 
figures  (1900),  as  follows: — 


Imports. 

Exports. 

German  Customs  Union     . 

.      5765.6 

461 1.4  (marks) 

Holland      .... 

.      1950.2 

1690.9  (gulden) 

Belgium      .         .         •         . 

.      2215.8 

1922.9  (francs) 

Switzerland 

.     nil. I 

836.1  (francs) 

This  would  formerly  have  been  esteemed  an  "unfavour- 
able "  balance.  But  no  one  in  the  present  day  will 
consider  that  the  annual  economic  totals  of  these  countries 
indicate  a  worse  position  than  that  of  Austria-Hungary, 
Servia,  or  Bulgaria,  in  all  of  which  countries  the  exports 


ECONOxMIC   GEOGRAPHY  201 

exceed  the  imports.  The  revenue  of  a  country  is  power- 
fully affected  by  other  items,  especially  the  return  upon 
capital  invested  abroad,  the  freights  of  internal  and 
external  commerce,  and  the  sums  set  in  motion  by  travel. 

The  smaller  the  states  of  Central  Europe  the  more 
surely  are  their  population  destined  to  follow  in  their  turn 
the  path  which  England  in  particular  has  trodden  with  so 
much  success,  and  to  employ  their  capital  not  solely  in 
the  overcrowded  labour  market  of  their  own  homes,  but 
also  to  make  use  of  a  considerable  part  of  it  in  foreign 
and  trans-oceanic  countries. 

We  should  greatly  underrate  the  economic  importance 
of  Central  Europe  if  we  held  our  attention  concentrated 
upon  what  goes  on  within  its  boundaries.  It  is  true  that, 
of  all  its  states,  Holland  alone  has  colonial  possessions 
bringing  in  really  abundant  profits  ;  the  future  must 
decide  the  results  of  the  efforts  being  made  in  this 
direction  by  Belgium  and  Germany.  Far  greater  is  the 
work  carried  on  under  foreign  rule  by  the  enterprising 
financiers  and  pioneers  of  civilisation  belonging  to  these 
two  countries  and  to  Switzerland,  in  plantations,  mines, 
factories,  railway  building,  and  merchant  shipping. 

To  try  and  show  this  in  detail  would  be  to  circum- 
navigate the  earth.  It  lies  in  the  nature  of  things  that 
this  wholesale  activity  cannot  be  brought  under  exact 
statistical  statement.  The  desire  of  gaining  some  approxi- 
mate notion  of  it  may  be  satisfied  by  a  glance  at  the 
trustworthy  figures,  lately  made  public,  that  deal  with  the 
foreign  business  activities  of  one  country,  the  German 
Empire.  The  possessions  of  its  inhabitants  in  foreign 
funds  are  given  at  twelve  and  a  half  milliards  of  marks. 
The  annual  freight  dues  upon  sea-carriage  exceed  200 
millions.  The  total  amount  of  other  capital  employed 
beyond  the  national  boundaries  in  various  undertakings 
cannot  be  less  than  seven  milliards  of  marks.  There 
is  hardly  a  country  of  the  world  where  capital  and 
intelligence  from  Central  Europe  do  not  take  a  large 
share  in  industrial  competition.  A  superficial  glance  at 
the   renewed   activity   and    eager    competition    prevailing 


202  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

among  the  struggling  and  progressive  nations  of  the 
world,  and  at  the  spread  of  this  competition  into  every 
corner  of  available  land,  may  v^rell  give  the  impression 
that  differences  between  nations  and  the  dangers  arising 
from  such  differences  are  becoming  more  acute.  Pro- 
bably the  precise  contrary  is  true.  Every  new  milliard 
which  any  country  takes  into  a  foreign  part  strengthens 
the  interests  of  peaceful  labour  as  against  the  violent 
incHnations  by  which  politicians  are  so  apt  to  be  led 
astray.  The  closer  and  firmer  the  links  in  which  nations 
are  drawn  together  by  common  business  relations,  the 
more  earnestly  does  sound  and  growing  enlightenment 
insist  upon  the  first  condition  of  successful  labour — 
peace. 

Note  on  Authorities. — The  natural  conditions,  historical  development, 
and  present  physiognomy  of  native  vegetation  are  set  forth  in  handbooks 
of  botanical  geography  by  Grisebach,  Drude,  Warming,  and  Schimper. 
An  excellent  general  view  of  plants  under  cultivation  is  presented  by 
Theodore  H.  Engelbrecht's  Die  Landbauzonen  aer  aussertropischen 
Lander,  3  vols.,  1899,  a  work  rich  in  statistical  details.  A  map  of 
viticulture  has  been  drawn  by  W.  Hamm,  the  author  of  the  learned 
Weinbuch,  third  edition,  1S86. 

Maps  of  the  mineral  treasures  are  to  be  found  in  the  Fhysicalisch- 
Statistischen  Atlas  des  Deutschen  Reiches^  by  R.  Andree  and  O.  Peschel, 
1878  ;  and  in  the  corresponding  atlas  of  Austria-Hungary,  by  J.  Cha- 
vanne,  1887 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   ALPINE    COUNTRIES 

The  mighty  war-tempests  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 

centuries  rolled  past  the  Swiss  Federation  without  hurting 

it.      The   mountaineers  could  only  satisfy 

Switzerland 
their  warlike  impulses  by  taking  voluntary 

service  as  mercenaries,  generally  under  the  French  flag. 
When,  after  the  time  of  Napoleon,  the  European  states 
settled  again  into  equilibrium,  the  quietest  spot  was  once 
more  assigned  to  Switzerland.  The  great  Powers  guaran- 
teed her  neutrality.  Switzerland  did  well,  however,  not 
to  let  her  independence  rest  entirely  upon  the  will  of 
her  neighbours,  but  to  draw  her  twenty-two  cantons  (now 
twenty-five)  into  closer  union,  and  to  fit  herself  for  defence. 
She  is  not  compelled,  however,  to  make  any  very  great 
exertions  for  her  own  security,  but  can  devote  her  strength, 
unthreatened  and  undisturbed,  to  developing  the  aptitudes 
of  her  people.  Her  internal  commotions  are  no  more 
than  teacup  storms  ;  the  nationalities  united  within  her 
borders — 71  per  cent,  of  Germans  and  22  per  cent,  of 
French — offer  to  all  Central  Europe  a  fine  example  of  how 
to  dwell  together  in  unity. 

In  all  the  works  of  peace  Switzerland  takes  a  high 
place.  In  public  education,  in  scientific  investigation  of 
their  lovely  country's  nature,  in  the  representation  of  its 
surface  by  maps  of  extraordinary  excellence,  in  the  con- 
flict with  the  wild  forces  of  nature  by  ruling  the  paths  of 
avalanches  and  the  beds  of  torrents,  in  the  planting  of  de- 
solate mountain  slopes,  and  the  regulation  of  neglected 
rivers,  the  Swiss  are  ahead  of  all  their  neighbours. 
Switzerland  is  a  rich  country,  not  by  nature,  but  entirely 
owing  to  the  diligence  of  its  inhabitants.     It  possesses  no 


204  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

great  quantity  of  ores  or  of  fuel.  Salt  alone  is  yielded 
abundantly  by  the  works  of  Bex,  Rheinfelden,  and  Schvvei- 
zerhall.  Of  the  total  surface  of  the  country  (i6,coo  square 
miles)  fully  28  per  cent,  is  rendered  useless  to  man  by 
watercourses,  glaciers,  rocks,  and  detritus  ;  while  even  in 
the  remaining  parts  the  climate  and  the  soil  prevent 
labour  from  obtaining  a  full  return.  Of  the  72  per  cent, 
of  the  country  reckoned  as  a  productive  area,  20  per  cent,  is 
occupied  by  forests,  and  certainly  more  than  30  by  meadows 
and  pastures,  scarcely  20  by  arable  land,  orchards,  and 
gardens.  The  activities  of  Swiss  farming  have  for  many 
years  past  been  more  and  more  directed  towards  the  rear- 
ing of  cattle,  while  agriculture  has  been  less  and  less  fol- 
lowed. The  harvests  of  the  country,  therefore,  do  not 
nearly  supply  the  demands  of  the  population  and  of  the 
vast  numbers  of  foreign  visitors.  Although  the  magni- 
ficent cattle  that  give  life  to  all  the  high  pastures  of  the 
Alps,  and  especially  to  the  meadows  of  Appenzell,  the 
Grisons,  the  three  original  cantons,  and  Fribourg,  furnish 
exports  of  milk-produce  to  the  value  of  70,000,000  francs, 
yet  these  are  counterbalanced  by  imports  of  food  to  four 
or  five  times  this  value,  consisting  chiefly  of  agricultural 
produce,  meat,  and  also  alcoholic  beverages.  Thus  that 
portion  of  the  country's  economic  power  which  has  any 
external  effect  runs  principally  in  industrial  channels. 
Manufactures  occupy  almost  the  same  number  of  the 
population  as  agriculture.  The  lack  of  coal,  which  has  to 
be  imported  from  the  Saar  district,  is  in  some  measure 
compensated  by  the  abundance  of  water-power.  Water- 
power  gives  its  support  to  the  cotton  trade  of  North-East 
Switzerland.  But  even  in  the  textile  industries,  the  lace 
and  embroidery  of  Appenzell  and  St.  Gallen,  and  the  silk 
trade  of  Basle  and  Zurich,  the  raw  material  of  which  comes 
by  way  of  the  St.  Gothard  from  Italy,  the  principal  factor 
of  success  is  that  diligence  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
workers  which  attain  their  fullest  triumph  in  the  watch 
manufacture  of  the  Jura  and  the  jewellery  work  of  Geneva. 
The  textile  industries  of  Switzerland  contribute  more  than 
41 5,000,000  francs  to  the  exports  of  the  country,  and  watch- 


THE   ALPINE   COUNTRIES  205 

making  1 23,000,000  francs.  The  total,  however,  remains  far 
behind  that  of  the  imports.  Among  the  contributory  sources 
of  wealth  by  which  this  large  commercial  deficit  is  counter- 
balanced in  a  country  whose  prosperity  is  notorious,  must 
be  reckoned  the  vast  consumption  arising  from  the  influx 
of  foreigners. 

The  natural  beauties  of  a  high  mountain  country,  so 
despised  in  former  times,  are  now  so  much  esteemed, 
that  they  assume  the  value  of  an  indestructible  capital, 
from  which  the  industrious  inhabitants  are  always  busy 
in  drawing  the  interest. 

If  we  were  obliged  to  name  a  centre  of  this  busy 
life,  we  should  find  our  task  difficult.  Not  only  the 
federal  constitution  of  Switzerland,  but  even  the  nature 
of  the  country  impedes  the  pulsation  of  all  its  life  from 
one  heart,  and  tends  rather  to  the  development  of  several 
independent  and  competing  centres  of  intellectual  and 
material  exchange.  The  position  of  these  is  evidently 
fixed  by  the  attractive  power  of  the  roads  that  connect 
the  country  with  the  exterior  world.  Geneva,  at  the 
lower  end  of  Lake  Leman,  where  the  Rhone  flows  out 
on  its  way  to  the  southern  gate  of  the  Jura,  is  beyond 
question  the  capital  of  French  Switzerland.  Judging 
by  situation,  the  corresponding  place  in  North  Switzer- 
land would  be  Constance,  which  indeed  strove  in  the 
Middle  Ages  towards  a  leading  position.  But  after  the 
Federation  separated  from  the  Empire,  the  interests  of 
Constance  became  antagonistic  to  those  of  Switzerland, 
and  it  consequently  lost  not  only  its  territory,  but  also  the 
beginnings  of  commercial  prosperity.  Switzerland  found 
compensation  for  the  lack  of  this  place  by  stretching 
beyond  her  natural  boundaries  on  the  one  hand  to 
Schaffhausen  across  the  Rhine,  and  on  the  other  to 
Basle  beyond  the  Jura.  The  former  gives  a  passage  into 
Swabia,  while  Basle  commands  the  communications  to 
the  valley  of  the  Upper  Rhine  and  into  Burgundy.  But 
the  northern  outlets  of  Switzerland,  so  different  from 
the  simple  opening  of  the  Rhone,  have  always  tended  to 
throw  the  northern  centre  of  Switzerland  somewhat  back- 


2o6  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

wards  towards  a  gathering  place  in  the  interior.  The  old 
Romans  chose  Vindonissa  on  the  Aar,  near  to  the  junction 
of  the  Reuss  and  the  Limmat  at  the  foot  of  the  heights 
which  carry  the  Habsburg.  This  convergence  of  valleys 
promised  more  than  it  fulfilled.  It  leads  on  the  north, 
not  to  an  open  exit,  but  to  the  broad  southern  slope 
of  the  Black  Forest.  These  mountains,  closing  the  valley 
road  of  Central  Switzerland,  largely  conduced  towards 
the  independence  of  Switzerland  by  favouring  its  separa- 
tion from  Germany.  In  ancient  times  they  must  have 
checked  the  development  of  traffic  at  Vindonissa.  Modern 
times  have  succeeded  better  in  the  choice  of  Zurich, 
more  to  the  east,  as  the  centre  of  traffic.  Here 
the  natural  road  from  Geneva  to  Berne,  crossing  the 
outflow  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  meets  not  only  the  line 
from  Chur  to  Basle,  but  also  the  St.  Gothard  line.  Their 
junction  and  the  division  of  the  traffic  towards  the  towns 
on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  towards  Schaffhausen  and 
towards  Basle,  which  takes  place  here,  secure  to  Zurich, 
which  is  fast  becoming  the  chief  of  Switzerland's  large 
towns,  an  inalienable  superiority  over  Berne.  The 
central  position  of  Berne  marks  the  proper  seat  of  the 
Federal  Government.  As  a  centre  of  traffic  it  would  not 
be  equal  to  Zurich,  even  if  a  tunnel  through  the  Bernese 
Oberland  (Lotschen  Pass)  should  succeed  in  connecting 
it  with  the  Simplon.  For  the  principal  traffic  of  this 
pass  would,  even  then,  not  touch  Berne,  but  go  to  its 
destination  by  way  of  Lausanne,  which  aims  at  taking  the 
same  place  as  a  meeting-point  of  traffic  behind  Geneva 
that  Zurich  takes  behind  Basle. 

All  the  little  centres  stand  considerably  behind  the 
towns  which  have  been  mentioned.  The  modest  pro- 
sperity of  Neuchatel  is  closely  limited  by  the  Jura  and 
the  lake.  Lucerne  dominates  only  the  beautiful  little 
world  of  its  own  lake,  and  Chur  the  passes  of  the 
Grisons,  which  have  become  less  frequented.  As  seats 
of  modern  industry,  both  the  watchmaking-town  of  La 
Chaux  de  Fonds  and  the  old  St.  Gallen  have  risen  into 
importance.     On  the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  and  leading 


THE   ALPINE   COUNTRIES  207 

into  quite  another  world,  lies  Lugano,  the  most  southerly 
outpost  of  Switzerland,  hidden  among  gardens  whose 
mountains  are  mirrored  in  a  warm  lake. 

As   we    advance    farther   towards   the    east    the    Alps 

become  less  important.     The  summits  of  the  mountains 

sink  to  a  lower  altitude,  the  passes  become 

easier,    the   great  valleys  grow   wider  and      ^"^     lpine 

1         •     ,  ,         ,-..,,      1       1  Countries  of 

more  hospitable,  while  the  absolutely  un-      Austria. 

productive  part,  which  in  Valais  and  Uri 
occupied  more  than  half  the  area,  not  much  less  in  the 
Grisons,  and  a  third  even  in  Ticino,  shrinks  to  less  than  a 
fifth  as  soon  as  we  come  to  Tyrol  and  Salzburg,  and  in 
Styria  and  Upper  Austria  is  less  than  a  tenth.  These 
increasing  tracts  of  productive  land  are  occupied  by  grass 
only  in  those  districts  which  lie  near  to  Switzerland,  and 
compete  with  it  in  cattle  -  farming,  such  as  the  Vorarl- 
berg  and  the  Bavarian  Allgau.  In  all  the  other  parts  of 
the  eastern  Alps  forest  covers  the  greater  part  of  the 
country,  and,  taking  all  the  Alpine  districts  of  Austria 
together,  occupies  39  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area.  The 
prosperous  days  of  gold-mining  in  the  Tauern,  and  of 
silver  and  copper  mining  at  Schwaz,  in  the  lower  valley  of 
the  Inn,  belong  indeed  to  the  past,  but  Salzburg  still  yields 
copper,  Carinthia  lead  and  zinc,  Carniola  not  only  zinc, 
but  also  quicksilver  from  Idria,  while  the  iron  mountain 
of  Eisenerz  is  superior  to  all  other  mines  in  the  Alpine 
countries.  Antiquity  praised  the  "  Noric  blade,"  and 
still  older  may  be  the  salt  mines  of  the  Salzkammergut, 
famous  for  the  archaeological  discoveries  of  Hallstadt. 
The  old  salt-mines  at  Aussee,  Hallstadt,  Ischl,  Hallein,  and 
Hall  (in  the  Tyrol),  are  still  worked,  but  the  salt  streams 
which  came  from  the  salt-beds,  and  of  which  the  evapo- 
ration yielded  coarse  salt,  were  carried  down — as  soon  as 
the  fuel  of  the  immediate  neighbourhood  had  been  con- 
sumed— in  long  loops  to  distant  woodlands.  Thus  the 
salt-spring  of  Hallstadt  and  Ischl  goes  down  to  Ebensee ; 
that  of  Berchtesgaden,  in  the  Bavarian  portion  of  the 
same    salt-bed  which    near    Hallein   belongs    to    Austria, 


2o8  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

is  carried  over  a  high  pass  to  Reichenhall,  and  even 
farther  on,  by  way  of  Traunstein  to  Rosenheim  on  the 
Inn,  where,  besides  the  wood  of  considerable  forests,  the 
peat  of  a  large  bog  lies  ready  to  be  used  in  the  evaporating 
of  the  salt. 

The  hills  of  the  Alpine  foreland,  especially  the  Haus- 
ruck,  as  well  as  the  valley  districts  of  the  rivers  Inn, 
Drave,  Mur,  Save,  and  Sann,  possess  excellent  beds  of 
lignite,  the  richest  of  these  being  in  Styria,  along  the 
western  border  of  the  basin  of  Graz.  The  neighbour- 
hood of  this  deposit,  and  that  of  Leoben,  lightens  the 
pressure  of  competition  from  northern  ironworks  to  which 
Styria  has  been  exposed  since  improved  modern  processes 
of  smelting,  by  rendering  possible  and  profitable  the  forg- 
ing of  phosphates  of  iron,  deprived  Styrian  iron  of  the 
superiority  which  it  enjoyed  in  being  free  from  phosphorus. 

Mining  in  its  various  shapes  has  had  a  great  influence 
in  drawing  settlers  to  the  valleys  of  the  Eastern  Alps,  and 
still  gives  employment  to  a  considerable  part  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  districts  specially  favoured  by  climate,  the 
Rhine  Valley  and  the  valleys  of  Southern  Tyrol,  are 
most  thickly  peopled.  In  the  Vorarlberg  spinning  and 
embroidery  are  carried  on,  as  well  as  agriculture  and 
horticulture,  successfully  modelled  upon  those  of  Switzer- 
land ;  in  Italian  Tyrol,  as  in  Lombardy,  many  busy  hands 
are  employed  in  the  breeding  of  silkworms.  But,  in 
all  these  districts,  the  essential  feature  of  economic  life 
lies  in  the  high  cultivation  of  the  land.  Mulberry  trees 
stand  in  rows  along  the  edges  or  down  the  middle  of  the 
fields  ;  between  them  swing  the  garlands  of  the  vine,  and 
the  same  field  will  here  be  seen  to  bear  maize  for  polenta, 
wine  to  gladden  the  heart  of  rich  and  poor  alike,  and 
mulberry  leaves  for  the  silkworm.  But  the  population 
has  already  outgrown  the  country's  resources,  and  numbers 
of  industrious  workers  from  Italian  Tyrol  are  seeking 
their  bread  in  foreign  countries.  Farther  north,  in 
the  German  portion  of  Southern  Tyrol,  where  silk- 
breeding  disappears,  fruit  culture  takes  its  place  beside 
the    vine    culture,   whose    cheerful    verdure    fills    all    the 


THE   ALPINE   COUNTRIES  209 

hollows  about  Bozen,  and  many  a  neat  village  draws  a 
rich  return  from  the  loads  of  apples,  nuts,  and  chest- 
nuts which  it  sends  abroad.  These  favoured  valleys  of 
Southern  Tyrol  attract  a  large  proportion  of  the  crowd  of 
tourists  whom  the  charm  of  the  mountains  draws  to  the 
Eastern  Alps.  The  mountain  lover  must  not  look,  in  the 
high  valleys  of  the  Austrian  Alps,  for  the  invariable  comfort 
and  luxuriousness  of  a  Swiss  hotel ;  nor  will  he  find  a  net 
of  railings  running  round  those  mountain  peaks  that  afford 
the  finest  views  ;  but,  wherever  he  goes,  he  will  soon  feel 
at  home  among  a  kind-hearted  people. 

The  point  at  which  the  Brenner  line  runs  into  the 
longitudinal  valley  of  the  Inn  and  joins  the  Arlberg  line  i& 
naturally  the  site  of  the  capital  of  the  country,  Innsbruck, 
situated  upon  the  plane  of  a  broad  shallow  valley.  To 
the  south  of  the  Brenner  no  one  centre  reunites  the 
advantages  possessed  by  Innsbruck.  Franzensfeste  is  the 
point  of  junction  of  railways  ;  Brixen  is  the  bishopric  ; 
at  Bozen  the  rivers  meet,  and  Meran  is  the  terminus 
of  the  mediaeval  road  over  the  Brenner,  which  avoiding 
the  difficult  gorges  of  the  Eisack  valley,  diverged  at 
Sterzing,  and  came  over  the  Jaufen.  At  that  period  the 
castle  of  Tyrol,  above  Meran,  was  a  feudal  seat  well  fitted 
to  impress  its  name  upon  the  whole  country.  Trient,  the 
capital  of  Italian  Tyrol,  which  is  inferior  to  none  of  these 
four  places,  is  the  dividing  point  of  the  roads  to  Venice, 
Verona,  and  Brescia. 

Farther  east  the  Hohen  Tauern  divide  the  provinces 
of  Salzburg  and  Carinthia,  each  of  which  can  communi- 
cate easily  with  Tyrol,  but  not  so  easily  with  the  other. 
Beautiful  Salzburg,  in  its  character  of  doorway  to  Tyrol, 
assumes  increased  importance  from  the  fact  that  the  Inn, 
when  it  emerges  from  the  mountains,  is  no  longer  in 
Austrian  territory.  Klagenfurt,  the  capital  of  Carinthia, 
lies  in  a  quieter  place,  and  is  more  distinctly  a  town 
of  the  interior  of  the  Alps.  Its  basin  has  beauties 
of  scenery  that  far  surpass  the  boggy  plain  of  Laibach, 
the  capital  of  Carniola,  but  cannot  altogether  compare 
with  it  as  a  centre  of  traffic.     The  railway  from  Trieste 


2IO  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

now  carries  the  traffic  of  the  Mediterranean  districts  that 
once  went  by  the  busy  Roman  road  between  Aquileia  and 
Nauportus.  While  the  ancient  road  went  up  the  Save 
and  along  it  into  the  Hungarian  lowland,  the  modern  one 
turns  very  decidedly  northward  towards  Styria. 

The  Styrian  capital,  Graz,  owes  its  existence,  its 
name,  and  a  part  of  the  beauty  of  its  landscape  to  the 
steep  mountain,  crowned  by  a  castle,  that  rises  in  a 
picturesque  promontory  from  the  broad  valley  of  the 
Mur.  But  the  size  and  the  importance  of  the  town  were 
decided  by  its  position  at  the  outlet  of  the  Mur  into  the 
basin  of  Graz.  At  this  point  the  road  into  the  Raab 
valley,  going  on  into  the  heart  of  Hungary,  branches  off 
to  the  east  from  the  River  Mur,  which  guides  the  course 
another  road  in  the  direction  to  the  Adriatic.  From  the 
west  lignite  pours  into  the  town  from  the  neighbouring 
beds  and  enables  it  to  take  part  in  the  forging  of  Styrian 
iron,  and  to  enter  upon  many  branches  of  manufacture. 

Two  easy  approaches  give  access  from  the  south  to  the 
inner  longitudinal  valley  of  Styria,  from  the  two  ends  of 
which  the  rivers  Mur  and  Miirz  flow  to  meet  each  other, 
that  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Mur  from  Graz,  and  the 
low  pass  of  Neumarkt  from  the  basin  of  Klagenfurt. 
To  the  north  two  corresponding  outlets  open  towards 
the  northern  border  of  the  Alps.  The  more  westerly  of 
these  goes  across  the  low  Schober  Pass  to  the  Enns,  and 
follows  that  river  up  to  its  junction  with  the  Danube, 
whence  it  continues  northward  into  Bohemia  ;  near  the 
southern  entrance  of  that  country  lies  Linz,  the  capital  of 
Upper  or  Western  Austria.  The  Semmering  railway,  on 
the  other  hand,  goes  north-eastward  from  the  Miirz  to 
the  largest  town  of  the  whole  Alpine  country. 

The  basin   of  Vienna  is  the  only  break  in  the   great 

curve    of    the    mountains    that    stretch    from     the    Gulf 

of    Liguria   to   the    Black   Sea.      It    lies    at   an 

important    point    near     to    that    at    which    the 

chain    changes    direction    from    east   to    north-east.       It 

thus  happens   that  the  road   which   follows   the    eastern 


THE   ALPINE   COUNTRIES  211 

border  of  the  Alps  from  the  innermost  angle  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea  continues,  beyond  the  Danube,  through 
the  Carpathian  foreland  of  Moravia  towards  the  north- 
east, and  finds  its  easiest  way  out,  into  the  northern 
lowland,  through  the  Moravian  gap.  This  north- 
eastern road  crosses  the  south-eastward  course  of  the 
Danube  in  the  basin  of  Vienna.  The  communica- 
tion between  the  Adriatic  and  the  Baltic  by  way 
of  the  ancient  amber  road  across  the  great  chain  of 
mountains  can  hardly  be  of  more  recent  origin  than 
Massalia  and  Olbia,  the  Greek  trading  places  which 
reached  out  from  the  two  ends  of  the  mountains  into 
the  interior  of  the  continent.  The  history  of  the  basin 
of  Vienna,  however,  only  begins  with  the  establishment  of 
the  Roman  camp  at  Carnuntum,  which  was  a  main  bul- 
wark of  the  Danube  frontier  near  the  exit  of  the  river 
from  the  basin  of  Vienna.  It  was  the  central  point  of  the 
defences  from  which  the  Romans  kept  watch  upon  the 
native  roads  through  the  valleys  of  the  March  and  the 
Waag.  The  flanks  were  protected  by  Brigelio  (not  far 
from  Komorn)  on  the  east,  and  by  Vindobona  on  the 
west.  Vienna  assumed  a  very  different  importance  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  the  Germans  pushed  their  boundaries 
forward  into  this  neighbourhood  against  the  Hungarian 
mounted  tribes.  Vienna  was  the  foremost  well-secured 
outpost  against  them,  protected  in  the  rear  and  on  either 
side  by  the  mountains  and  the  river,  here  close  together, 
and  requiring  to  be  defended  only  on  the  south  front, 
along  the  river  Wien. 

Mediaeval  Vienna,  the  capital  of  the  "  Ostmark " 
(eastern  march),  was  thus  —  like  ancient  Vindobona  — 
primarily  a  border  town.  Only  when  it  ceased  to  be 
this  did  it  attain  to  a  higher  importance.  It  next  became 
the  capital  of  the  Alpine  possessions  of  the  Habsburgs. 
As  the  tail  of  a  peacock  slowly  unfolds  into  a  full  circle, 
so  these  possessions,  enlarged  by  wise  domestic  policy, 
grew  round  Vienna.  Six  natural  districts  may  be  men- 
tioned which  have  Vienna  for  their  centre  : — The  Alps, 
rich   in  wood,  iron,  and  salt  ;  the  country  of  the  upper 


212  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Danube,  the  home  of  colonists  who  were  continually 
adding  strength  to  the  Austrian  forces  by  whom  the  east 
was  being  settled  and  cultivated  ;  Bohemia,  blessed  with 
silver,  coal,  and  an  industrially  skilled  population  ;  Moravia, 
fertile  in  itself,  and  valuable,  moreover,  because  it  gives 
access  to  the  northern  lowland  and  Galicia ;  Upper 
Hungary,  storehouse  of  precious  metals  and  copper  ; 
the  Hungarian  Plain,  an  immeasurably  rich  country  of 
luxuriant  meadows  and  wide  pastures,  engirt  by  vine- 
yard slopes.  Thus  Vienna  occupies  a  position  singularly 
adapted  to  bring  wealth  and  prosperity  to  the  capital 
so  happily  placed  as  a  centre  of  exchange. 

One  thing  only  diminishes  the  advantages  of  this 
situation,  the  differences  of  the  peoples  by  whom  the 
countries  around  Vienna  are  inhabited.  The  more 
sharply  marked  these  racial  divergences  become,  the 
more  certainly  will  the  fortunes  of  Vienna  again  undergo 
vicissitudes  that  will  recall  the  former,  not  wholly 
obliterated  condition  as  a  border  town.  The  period  of 
the  Turkish  wars,  indeed,  when  Vienna  once  again 
occupied  the  position  of  a  door  shutting  off  the  western 
countries  from  the  barbarians,  is  long  gone  by.  Hungary, 
which  was  then  a  prey  to  Asiatic  conquerors,  has  become 
a  highly  civilised  country,  but  it  has  also  become  an 
independent  country  with  a  centre  of  its  own,  whose 
importance  diminishes  that  of  Vienna.  Moreover,  Vienna 
lies  near  to  the  border  of  the  western  half  of  the  empire^ 
and  even  within  this,  Sclavonic  races  are  striving  for 
greater  independence,  and  are  resisting  the  attraction  of 
the  capital. 

In  her  struggle  against  these  centrifugal  tendencies,. 
Vienna  may  safely  put  her  trust  in  those  advantages  of 
situation  which  have  hitherto  kept  her  growing  and 
progressing.  With  the  increased  facilities  of  communi- 
cation, Vienna  has  come  to  the  front  as  a  centre  of 
continental  traffic.  The  point  at  which  the  lines  from 
Moscow  to  Marseilles,  and  from  London  to  Constantinople 
cross,  must  remain  a  focus  of  European  life. 

Instead  of  the  mediaeval  belt    of  walls,  the  old  kernel 


THE   ALPINE   COUNTRIES  213 

of  the  city  is  now  encircled  by  the  Ringstrasse  with  its 
fringe  of  palaces.  Far-reaching  suburbs  lie  beyond  it  in 
every  direction.  Greater  Vienna,  a  metropolis  of  one  and 
a  half  million  of  inhabitants,  has  overstepped  the  outer 
ring  of  the  old  communal  octroi-line  ;  and  the  spread  of 
the  tov/n  on  the  other  side  of  the  arms  of  the  Danube 
Canal — which  are  defended  from  floods — being  restricted 
by  the  liability  of  inundation  from  the  river,  the  outskirts 
have  pushed  their  way  up  the  hillsides  between  the  vine- 
yards, and,  stretching  out  into  the  southern  plain,  have 
absorbed  a  number  of  villages  that  at  one  time  were 
separate.  This  circle  of  suburbs  is  animated  by  industries 
that  touch  almost  every  branch  of  manufacture,  work  up 
raw  materials  from  every  part  of  the  empire,  and  create, 
not  only  all  the  necessaries  of  life,  but  also  those  many 
accessory  adornments,  requiring  invention,  taste,  and 
fancy,  which  are  so  dear  to  the  spoilt  children  of 
civilisation.  Nor  is  this  all  ;  the  noblest  intellectual  life 
— art  and  science — finds  a  home  in  Vienna,  the  light  from 
which  streams  out  not  only  upon  the  peoples  of  the  great 
empire,  but  far  over  its  borders. 

Note  on  Authorities. — While  Switzerland  still  awaits  a  description 
worthy  of  its  admirable  cartography,  the  Alpine  lands  of  Austria  have 
been  adequately  portrayed  in  five  volumes  of  the  work  projected  by 
the  Crown  Prince  Rudolf. 

The  geographical  position  of  Vienna  has  been  described  by  J.  G.  Kohl, 
A.  Penck  {Schriften  des  Vereins  zur  Verbreitung  naturiv.  Kentnisse, 
XXXV.  1895),  and  Gulliver  {Journal  0/  School  Geography,  iv.  1900). 


CHAPTER    XIII 

THE  SUDETIC  AND  CARPATHIAN  COUNTRIES  OF  AUSTRIA 

While  the  Alpine  territory  contained  within  the  Austrian 

empire  occupies  with  its  impressive  and  beautiful  scenery 

an    extensive    stretch    of    country    (44,752 

The  Sudetic    square  miles),  the  territory  belonging  to  the 

CotlNTRIFS  J  O       o 

OF  Austria  Sudetes  is  less  by  one-third  (30,604  square 
miles),  but  contains  a  population  almost 
one-third  larger  (9,400,000).  The  population  is,  there- 
fore, almost  twice  as  dense,  and  economic  life,  in  the 
three  basins  whose  waters  may  be  seen  from  the 
Schneeberg  near  Glatz  running  towards  three  different 
seas,  is  more  richly  developed  and  not  so  much  con- 
centrated to  a  single  focus. 

Hardly  any  other  country  in  the  interior  of  our 
continent  has  so  clear  and  self-centred  an  individuality 
as  Bohemia.  Even  its  old  chronicler,  Cosmas,  points 
out  that  no  stream  flows  within  it  which  does  not  rise 
within  its  borders.  Other  countries,  especially  Tran- 
sylvania and  Switzerland,  might  say  the  same ;  but 
Bohemia,  instead  of  letting  its  rivers  run  away,  as  these 
countries  do,  in  all  directions,  emits  the  abundant  waters 
that  come  down  from  its  wide  framework  of  mountains 
through  one  single  opening.  This  fact,  and  the  radial 
convergence  of  the  watercourses  towards  the  middle  of 
the  country,  tend  to  give  it  an  unusual  inner  solidity  and 
unity,  preventing  a  divergence  of  economic  interests. 
Aristotle  declares  autarchy,  the  capacity  of  providing  for 
itself,  to  be  the  necessary  condition  of  political  inde- 
pendence ;  and  Bohemia  fulfils  this  condition  in  quite 
a  unique  degree.  Except  salt,  which  it  lacks,  its  rocks 
provide  it  with   every  mineral   product ;  while  the  plants 


SUDETIC  AND   CARPATHIAN   COUNTRIES     215 

of  the  earth  ascend  in  a  long  series  from  the  vineyards 
of  Melnik  to  the  high  mountain  pastures  of  the  Riesen 
Gebirge,  which  rise  above  the  line  of  the  woods,  and  are 
only  besprinkled  with  isolated  patches  of  dark  dwarf  pines. 

In  the  matter  of  natural  qualities  of  soil,  four  main 
divisions  of  Bohemia  may  be  distinguished.  The  south 
Bohemian  group  of  old  crystalline  rocks  falls  gradually 
from  the  wooded  heights  of  the  encircling  mountains 
to  an  undulating  highland  mainly  given  to  agriculture. 
The  towns  are  here  sparse  and  also  small,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Budweis,  which  has  sprung  up  in  the  valley 
of  the  Moldau  at  the  intersection  of  the  roads  from 
Linz  and  Vienna,  and  is  a  busy  trading  place.  The 
north-east  of  the  country,  as  far  as  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Elbe,  is  occupied  by  the  foreland  of  the  Sudetic 
mountains,  and  covered  for  the  most  part  by  broken 
slabs  of  freestone.  The  valleys  are  here  the  seat  of  an 
active  textile  trade,  which  is  served,  not  only  by  water- 
power,  but  also  by  the  coal  of  a  bed  that  extends  from 
Silesia.  The  glass  trade,  too,  flourishes,  especially  at  the 
southern  foot  of  the  Iser  Gebirge  and  of  the  mountains  of 
Lusatia,  In  a  valley  of  their  northern  slope  lies  Bohemia's 
largest  German  manufacturing  town,  Reichenberg.  The 
north-west  of  the  country,  thanks  to  the  depression  of 
the  Biela  and  Eger  valleys,  at  the  foot  of  the  Erz 
Gebirge,  possesses  not  only  some  of  the  warmest  and 
most  fruitful  tracts  of  land,  but  also  those  great  beds  of 
lignite  which  have  given  rise  both  to  a  mining  activity  that 
threatens  the  hot  springs  of  Teplitz  and  to  large  industrial 
undertakings. 

The  western  part  of  Central  Bohemia,  headed  by 
Pilsen,  unites  a  variety  of  mineral  resources,  silver  ores, 
iron,  coal  measures.  This  wealth  has  helped  to  infuse 
new  life  into  the  old  capital  of  the  country  and  to  trans- 
form the  quiet  and  venerable  royal  city  of  Prague  into  a 
great  modern  manufacturing  town. 

The  central  position  of  Prague,  where  six  highways 
meet,  offers  many  advantages.  Lying  but  ten  miles  above 
the  emergence  of  the  Moldau  from  the  narrow  valley  of  the 


2i6  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

old  schistose  rock  into  the  basin  of  the  Melnik,  Prague  is 
low  enough  to  be  one  of  the  warmest  and  most  agreeable 
spots  in  the  country,  and  to  be  surrounded  by  vineyards 
lying  at  the  feet  of  the  proud  hills  which  were  crowned  in 
the  Middle  Ages  by  bold  castles,  and  later  on  by  palaces, 
churches,  and  monasteries.  A  striking  contrast  to  the 
picturesque  aspect  of  historic  Prague  is  afforded  by  the 
extensive  suburbs,  busy  with  manufacture  and  modern 
commerce.  Only  one-sixth  of  the  inhabitants  are  of 
German  nationality.  Fifty  years  ago,  Prague  was  reckoned 
as  a  German  town. 

Briinn,  the  capital  of  Moravia,  is  German  still:  the  heart 
of  an  area  of  German  speech  marking  the  outpost  of  the 
wide  stream  of  German  immigration  from  Lower  Austria 
into  that  western  part  of  the  March  basin  which  is  drained 
by  the  Thaya.  Briinn  has  grown  up  at  the  foot  of  the 
steep  Spielberg  upon  a  peninsula  between  two  confluent 
rivers,  at  the  point  where  the  roads  from  Bohemia 
and  the  county  of  Glatz,  which  have  previously  joined, 
come  out  into  the  fertile  lowland  of  Western  Moravia. 
The  central  position,  between  the  Carpathians  and  the 
Bohemian-Moravian  mountains,  between  the  Danube  and 
the  Sudetes,  only  received  its  full  value  when  the  modern 
system  of  railways  came  into  action.  It  will,  however, 
never  be  able  to  surmount  the  defect  of  lying  aside  from 
the  natural  main  artery  of  Moravian  traffic,  the  line  of 
depression  between  the  Bohemian  group  and  the  Car- 
pathians. Oddly  enough,  the  other  considerable  towns  of 
Moravia  also  lie  far  to  the  west  of  this  line.  This  is  the  case 
not  only  with  Iglau,  but  also  with  Olmiitz,  the  bishopric 
of  Moravia,  and  principal  town  in  the  upper  valley  of  the 
March,  which  was  a  fortress  at  one  time  overlooking 
the  passes  of  the  eastern  Sudetic  Mountains.  Near  the 
northern  railway  which  runs  from  Vienna  along  the 
March  and  across  the  sill  of  the  Moravian  gap  into 
the  upper  district  of  the  Oder,  the  population  has  of 
late  years  increased  and  pressed  into  the  coalfields  of 
Moravian  Ostrau,  beyond  the  watershed,  and  about  the 
forges  of  Witkowitz 


SUDETIC   AND   CARPATHIAN   COUNTRIES     217 

The  part  of  Moravia  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Oder- 
berg  touches  the  boundary  of  the  empire,  and  divides 
fragments  of  Silesia  which  it  still  retains — the  Sudetic 
duchies  of  Jagerndorf  and  Troppau,  and  the  Carpathian 
duchy  of  Teschen.  The  two  former,  lying  aside  from 
the  main  roads  and  from  the  sources  of  power  afforded 
by  fossil  fuels,  have  to  depend  for  their  modest  prosperity 
upon  the  diligence  of  their  inhabitants — exercised  prin- 
cipally in  the  linen  trade,  but  Teschen  lies  at  the  end  of 
the  Jablunka  Pass,  which  is  the  great  passage-way  from 
Hungary  into  Germany,  and  the  tributary  which  Teschen 
sends  to  the  Oder  meets  that  river  in  a  valuable  part 
of  the  Upper  Silesian  coalfield.  Those  parts  of  Austrian 
Silesia,  therefore,  which  are  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Oderberg  are  alive  with  pits  and  forges.  The  same  is  the 
case  in  the  north-west  of  Galicia. 

The  north-western  environs  of  the  great  outer  Car- 
pathian curve,  those  belonging  to  the  Oder  and  the  March, 
are  so  closely  related  to  the  Sudetic  ^^^^  Carpathian 
Mountains,  and  the  south-eastern  parts,  Countries 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Pruth,  so  (Galicia  and 
intimately  connected  with  the  countries  of  "^"^  Bukowina). 
the  Black  Sea,  that  only  the  central  portion  of  this  circle  of 
country,  the  upper  basins,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  Vistula 
and  Dniester,  can  be  considered  as  thoroughly  dominated 
by  the  Carpathians.  The  importance  of  mountains  as  a 
basis  from  which  states  develop  is  displayed  by  the 
history  of  these  parts.  The  kingdom  of  Poland,  which 
grew  up  in  the  flat  country  without  natural  boundaries, 
eventually  planted  its  foot  firmly  upon  the  curve  of  the 
Carpathians.  Then,  and  not  till  then,  it  gained  strength 
enough  gradually  to  extend  its  arms  to  the  two  seas  that 
are  fed  by  Carpathian  rivers.  As  long  as  the  power  of 
Poland  continued  to  flourish,  Cracow  was  its  capital. 
Even  at  the  present  day  the  tombs  of  celebrated  kings 
impart  a  historic  interest  to  the  cathedral  on  the  hill  of 
its  citadel.  As  Vienna  stands  at  the  south-western  outlet 
of    the    valley    passage    by    which    the    Carpathians    are 


2i8  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

divided  from  the  secondary  chains  of  Central  Europe^ 
so  Cracow  faces  the  north-eastern  outlet.  This  line  of 
valley,  along  which  John  Sobieski  advanced  to  the  relief 
of  Vienna  in  1683,  was  the  main  hnk  by  which  the 
Polish  kingdom  in  the  western  part  of  the  east  European 
plain  was  connected  with  the  Danube  and  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  with  the  seats  of  German  Empire  and 
Papal  supremacy,  German  civilisation  and  Italian  art  and 
learning.  This  great  main  road  was  intersected  at 
Cracow  by  that  between  Southern  Russia  and  Northern 
Germany.  The  town  had  also  easy  access,  by  way  of  the 
Carpathian  passes,  to  the  valleys  of  the  Waag  and  the 
Hernad,  while  on  the  north  the  form  of  the  watershed 
allowed  a  busy  road  to  pass  along  it,  cutting  off  the  bend  of 
the  Vistula,  to  Thorn  and  Danzig,  which  were  formerly  the 
terminal  points  of  the  Vistula  navigation,  whose  beginning 
was  at  Cracow.  The  navigation  of  the  river  has  now 
dwindled,  and  carries  down  in  considerable  quantities 
only  Silesian  coal  and  Carpathian  wood,  but  it  formerly 
assisted  largely  in  the  conveyance  of  agricultural  products 
and  of  salt  from  Wielicska,  the  traffic  in  which  caused 
Cracow  to  be  an  active  centre  of  trade  long  before  German 
immigration  made  it  the  seat  of  manufacturing  industries.. 
Below  Cracow,  the  Vistula  becomes  the  boundary  of 
Russia,  —  a  fact  which  hinders  its  development  as  a 
practicable  waterway.  At  the  sandy  northern  point  of  the 
country  the  north-eastward  course  of  the  river  meets  that 
of  the  San,  which  runs  north-westward.  There  is  an 
important  cross  of  ways  at  the  fortress  of  Przemysl. 

In  East  Galicia  the  capital  is  not  upon  the  principal 
river.  The  meandering  Dniester  and  its  tributaries  cut 
deep  into  the  Podolian  plain  and  intersect  the  surface  of 
the  country  in  a  manner  very  unfavourable  to  traffic. 
When  tablelands  are  cut  into  deep  furrows  by  rivers,  the 
roads  are  forced  back  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  water- 
sheds. The  old  trading  road  between  Cracow  and  Kiev 
follows  this  rule  all  the  more  closely  because  the  deso- 
late expanses  of  wood  and  marsh  on  the  upper  reaches  of 
the  Bug  forbid  it  to  stray  towards  the   north.      At   the 


SUDETIC  AND   CARPATHIAN   COUNTRIES     219 

very  watershed  between  this  river  and  the  Dniester, 
has  arisen  Lemberg  (Lwow),  the  capital  of  Galicia, 
which  occupies  a  sheltered  hollow  among  fertile  hills 
of  "  loess."  The  situation  has  no  positive  natural  ad- 
vantages. A  possibility  was  offered,  however,  of  drawing 
together  at  this  point  the  ramifications  of  the  traffic  from 
Kiev,  Odessa,  and  Galatz,  and  so  making  Lemberg  the 
focus  of  the  commercial  activities  directed  into  Galicia  by 
places  nearer  the  border  of  the  empire,  such  as  Brody, 
Tarnopol,  and  Czernowitz.  The  direct  line  of  com- 
munication with  Hungary  across  the  Carpathians  also 
served  to  bring  the  richest  salt  and  petroleum  deposits 
of  East  Galicia — those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kalusz 
and  Drohobycz — into  connection  with  its  trade  centre. 
These  nineteenth-century  commercial  conditions  were  the 
causes  which  first  brought  out  the  full  value  of  the 
central  situation  of  the  capital,  and  they  have  contri- 
buted at  least  as  much  as  the  centralisation  of  legal 
procedure  and  the  culmination,  in  three  archbishops,  of 
the  hierarchies  of  three  different  creeds,  to  give  Lemberg 
a  place  above  that  of  the  once  celebrated  Cracow. 

While  Lemberg,  in  the  open  foreland,  spreads  out  a 
network  of  communications,  many  smaller  Galician  towns 
lie  on  the  border  of  the  mountains  at  the  mouths  of  the 
largest  valleys.  This  line  of  towns,  running  inside  the 
belt  of  the  great  rivers,  continues  into  the  Bukovina. 
Czernowitz,  on  the  Pruth,  also  belongs  to  it. 

Although  three  different  elements,  Poles,  Ruthenians, 
and  Roumanians,  have  successively  helped  to  form  the 
national  stock  of  their  peoples,  yet  Galicia  and  the  Buko- 
wina  can  be  considered  as  one  in  the  matter  of  civilisation 
and  social  life.  The  average  density  of  population  (eight 
millions  in  34,340  square  miles)  is  not  small,  when  we 
remember  that,  in  spite  of  the  terrible  destruction  of 
forests  in  Galicia,  28  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  covered 
by  woods,  and  that  agriculture  forms  more  decidedly 
the  basis  of  economic  existence  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  empire,  Dalmatia  alone  excepted.  Eighty-four 
per    cent,    of    the '  wage-earners    depend    upon   the   land 


220  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

and  various  processes  of  raw  production  ;  only  6  per  cent, 
have  turned  away  to  manufacture,  and  scarcely  5  per 
cent,  to  commerce.  In  agriculture  a  great  gulf  divides 
the  large  landed  proprietors  from  the  very  small  farmers  ; 
division  of  property,  carried  to  an  extreme,  has  reduced 
the  majority  of  the  people  to  a  state  of  helpless  exploita- 
tion at  the  hands  of  money-lenders.  Some  of  the  larger 
landlords,  too,  whose  property  is  not  always  managed  in 
the  steadiest  way,  are  falling  into  the  same  condition. 
Manufacture  is  undeveloped  ;  it  consists  merely  in  the 
collection  of  the  natural  products  of  the  earth,  and  their 
imperfect  working.  The  instruction  of  the  people  is  far 
lower  than  in  the  Alpine  and  Sudetic  provinces  of  the 
empire. 

Note  on  Authorities. — Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  Galicia,  and  the 
Bukovina,  fill  five  books  of  Oestereich-  Ungarn  in  Wort  und  Bild. 

The  development  of  Prague  was  considered  by  F.  G.  Kohl  in  1873,  in 
his  Die  Geographische  Lage  der  Haiiptstddte  Europas,  a  work  which 
also  deals  with  Vienna,  Trieste,  Buda-Pest,  Berlin,  and  Frankfort, 
delicately  weighing  the  influence  upon  progress  exerted  by  natural  situa* 
tion,  and  relation  to  near  and  distant  surroundings. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

HUNGARY 

Although  the  Carpathians  are  nearly  related  to  the  Alps 
in  formation,  and  their  heights  can  bear  comparison  with 
at  least  the  outer  chains  of  those  mountains,  yet  they  do 
not  exercise  anything  like  the  same  power  of  attraction 
over  the  mountain  lovers  of  highly  civilised  Western  and 
Central  Europe.  The  High  Tatra  alone  is  filled,  in  the 
height  of  summer,  by  a  stream  of  tourists,  who — as  in  the 
Alps — bring  wealth,  refinement,  and  a  higher  standard  of 
life  into  poor  valleys,  and  turn  the  beauty  of  nature  into 
a  direct  addition  to  the  economic  assets  of  the  country. 
In  all  other  parts  of  the  Carpathians  this  is  only  the  case 
to  a  far  less  degree.  Even  the  medicinal  springs,  which 
are  at  least  as  various  and  as  effectual  as  those  in  the 
Alpine  districts,  only  succeed  in  a  few  cases — such  as 
Trencsin-Teplitz  and  Pistyan,  in  the  charming  valley 
of  the  Waag,  and  Hercules'  Bath  on  the  Czerna — in 
attracting  a  concourse  of  visitors  at  all  equal  to  that  of 
the  celebrated  Alpine  baths.  These  frequented  spots  are 
sparsely  scattered,  and  do  not  alter  the  fact  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  Carpathians  is  quiet  and  very  little  visited  by 
strangers.  Many  tracts  are  among  the  least  inhabited  in 
all  Europe.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  mountain 
country  at  the  sources  of  the  Theiss  and  the  Pruth,  and 
of  the  vast  wooded  mountains  on  the  eastern  and  southern 
borders  of  Transylvania.  It  was  only  where  beds  of  ore 
invited  that  a  mining  population  early  pushed  its  way 
into  the  woods  and  mountains.  The  widely  extending 
district  in  which  the  Gran  rises  has  been  full  ever  since 
the  thirteenth  century  of  German  colonists,  who  carried 
away  quantities  of  precious  metal  from  the  lodes  in  the 


222  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

trachite  mountains  of  Kremnitz  and  Schemnitz,  and  from 
this  point  a  whole  belt  of  mediaeval  mining  settlements 
stretches  eastward  as  far  as  Gollnitz  and  Schmollnitz,  in 
the  Hernad  district.  All  have  passed  the  zenith  of  their 
fame,  and  with  the  decline  in  the  mining  of  precious 
metals,  the  German  nationality,  at  one  time  dominant, 
has  declined  too.  In  Transylvania  gold  held  out  longer 
on  the  south-eastern  side  of  the  mountains  forming  its 
western  border,  between  the  Marosh,  the  Aranyosh  (golden 
river),  and  the  source  of  the  White  Korosh.  In  these 
same  districts  are  found  the  largest  deposits  of  ironstone 
in  Hungary. 

Owing  to  ore  and  salt  mining,  a  number  of  little  centres 
of  civilisation  have  thus  arisen  among  the  Hungarian 
mountains,  but  large  towns  have  no  more  been  formed 
here,  than  they  have  by  agriculture  in  the  valleys.  The 
most  considerable  spots  in  the  mountain  districts  are 
where  traffic  meets  :  such  is  Kaschau  in  Upper  Hungary  ; 
and  such  in  Transylvania  are  the  Saxon  towns  of 
Kronstadt  (Brasso)  and  Hermannstadt  (Nagy-Seben),  and 
Klausenburg  (Koloshvar)  which  the  Magyars  chose  as 
the  foothold  of  their  nationality — all  of  them  occupy 
principal  openings  into  the  country. 

Within  the  ring  of  wooded  mountains  lie  the  vast  in- 
terior plains  of  Hungary,  which  are  the  seat  of  many- 
sided  and  successful  agriculture  and  cattle-farming.  Often 
ravaged  and  in  great  part  laid  waste  in  the  wild  old  days, 
these  are  now  occupied  by  a  population  thicker  than  that 
of  the  mountains,  but  there  is  still  abundant  space  to  allow 
of  a  progressive  increase.  The  circles  of  Hungary  proper 
exclusive  of  the  Croatian-Sclavonic  kingdom,  a  territory  of 
109,000  square  miles  with  16,721,000  inhabitants,  may 
thus  be  divided  into  two  groups  of  equal  area,  one  includ- 
ing the  tracts  of  country  on  the  periphery  of  the  Carpathian 
curve,  and  the  other  the  central  and  generally  flat  kernel 
of  the  country.  We  find  127  persons  to  the  square  mile 
in  the  first  group  and  177  in  the  second. 

The  great  plain  of  the  Alfold  has  been  settled  in  a 
most  peculiar  manner.     There  are  long  stretches  with  no 


HUNGARY  223 

villages  at  all,  and  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  inhabit- 
ants dwell  together  in  towns  and  large  hamlets,  with  ten, 
twenty,  or  thirty  thousand  inhabitants,  which  cover  enough 
space  for  a  town  of  five  or  six  times  their  population. 
Their  very  broad,  straight,  unpaved  streets — a  sea  of  mud 
in  wet  weather  and  a  wilderness  of  irregularities,  baked 
hard  as  stones,  in  dry — cut  one  another  at  right  angles. 
The  square  spaces  between  them  are  covered,  not  with 
houses  of  urban  appearance,  but  with  countrified  farms, 
shut  off  by  solid  wooden  fences  enclosing  not  only  the 
low  dwelling-houses,  but  also  farm  buildings,  stables, 
barns,  gardens,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  uncultivated 
land.  This  character  of  a  steppe-village  on  a  gigantic 
scale,  built  and  drawn  together  only  for  the  sake  of  de- 
fence against  hordes  of  mounted  robbers,  belongs  to 
the  whole  of  the  town,  except  the  centre,  where  a  few 
modern  showy  buildings  and  some  rows  of  better  houses 
surround  the  market-place  {piacz),  and  occupy  a  handful 
of  streets,  in  which  paving  and  lighting  make  some  ap- 
proach to  the  standard  of  European  civilisation.  Many 
of  these  townships  have  very  extensive  town  lands. 

Of  highroads,  in  the  western  European  sense,  there 
are  none,  only  the  enormously  wide  uncared-for  paths 
of  the  steppe,  amply  sufficient  for  the  Hght  Hungarian 
vehicles,  run  between  the  towns.  Latterly,  however, 
many  railways  have  been  constructed  across  the  plains, 
and  are  joining  the  towns  to  the  capital  of  the  country. 
A  more  independent  centre  of  the  Theiss  district  may  be 
found  in  Seged,  which  has  been  rebuilt  since  the  cata- 
strophe of  1879.  The  increase  in  population  and  im- 
provement in  cultivation  along  the  railways  are  graduall)^ 
lifting  these  towns  in  the  midst  of  the  plains  to  a  higher 
level  than  most  of  those  which  stand  at  the  mouths  of  im- 
portant valleys  in  the  mountain  framework  : — Temeshv^ar, 
Arad,  Grosswardein  (Nagy  Varad),  and  Miskolcz. 

The  abode  of  Attila  and  the  Avar  rulers  might  fitly 
lie  in  the  plain  of  the  Theiss,  but  when  Hungary  had 
become  one  with  western  civilisation,  it  could  only 
establish  its  capital  among  the  remnants  of  older  civilisa- 


224  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

tion  on  the  Danube.  The  most  considerable  towns  of 
ancient  Pannonia  have  come  to  Hfe  again,  in  Httle  altered 
positions,  as  the  modern  towns  of  the  Danube.  The 
entry  of  the  Danube  into  the  country  was  guarded 
in  antiquity  by  Carnuntum,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages 
by  Pressburg,  which  grew  up  on  the  east  side  of  the 
narrows  and  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Waag  valley,  and  was  intended  as  a 
border  fortress  against  the  German  Empire.  Pressburg 
owed  its  prosperity  to  German  civilisation,  and  is  still 
dominated  by  it.  Its  value  as  a  crossing-place  of  the 
Danube  is  increased  by  the  great  islands  which  begin  in 
the  river  just  below.  Not  until  the  river  has  collected 
the  additional  waters  of  three  tributaries  into  a  single 
channel  again  do  we  come  to  another  crossing-place  at 
Komorn,  a  town  and  fortress  opposite  to  the  site  of  the 
ancient  military  town  of  Brigetio.  In  the  narrows, 
where  the  river  breaks  across  the  mountains  that  divide 
the  two  plains,  lies  Gran  (Estergom),  which  was  the 
oldest  abode  of  the  Arpads,  and  the  seat  of  the  arch- 
bishopric, but  also,  for  the  space  of  157  years,  the  outer- 
most bastion  of  Turkish  power  when  at  its  height.  The 
ruins  of  the  castle  of  Vishegrad,  in  the  gorge  of  the 
Danube,  are  remains  of  a  royal  residence,  and  show  how 
clearly  was  understood  the  importance  for  rule  of  the 
whole  of  this  connection  between  the  two  Hungarian 
plains.  During  three  centuries,  indeed,  the  advantages 
of  a  more  southerly  opening  through  the  Hungarian 
secondary  chain,  on  the  shortest  way  from  Pressburg  and 
Raab,  into  the  middle  of  the  lower  plain,  were  allowed  to 
preponderate.  There  stood  Stuhlweissenburg  (Sekesh 
Feyervar),  the  place  of  coronation,  the  residence  and 
burial-place  of  many  kings. 

But  historical  experience  has  assigned  superior  im- 
portance to  a  middle  gate  between  these  two,  once  used 
by  the  Roman  road  which  reached  the  bank  of  the 
Danube  at  Aquincum.  Directly  south  of  the  ruins  of  this 
ancient  town  the  dolomite  heights  of  the  secondary  chain 
come  close  to  the  river  and  their  rocks,  now  crowned  by 


HUNGARY  225 

the  royal  castle,  and  the  town  of  Of  en  (Buda)  command 
a  splendid  view  over  the  powerful  stream  and,  beyond  it, 
over  the  immensity  of  Pest. 

The  crossing-place  of  the  Danube  at  the  hot  springs 
of  Ofen  was  of  immeasurable  value  in  the  old  times  of 
ferry  transit,  for  ferries  avoid  long  river  islands  as  much  as 
bridge-builders  seek  them.  To  this  point  came,  not  only 
a  road  from  Vienna  which,  at  Komorn,  took  in  the  traffic 
of  the  Waag  valley  and  of  Moravia,  but  also  the  line  of 
traffic  from  Fiume,  Agram,  and  Stuhlweissenburg,  which 
ran  by  the  edge  of  the  Bakonyan  Forest.  if  we  look, 
however,  at  a  ground  plan  of  the  roads  from  Pest,  we 
see  far  more  rays  on  the  left  bank,  where  unfolds  a 
veritable  fan  of  trading-roads.  The  radii  diverge,  at 
nature's  bidding,  to  Silesia,  Galicia,  the  Bukovina,  Tran- 
sylvania, Roumania,  and  Servia.  Their  direction  is 
always  fixed  by  some  distant  river  or  mountain  pass,  and 
the  wide  open  field  around  Pest  gives  them  free  play  as 
the  face  of  a  clock  gives  it  to  the  hands. 

Budapest  lies  close  to  the  southern  border  of  the 
mountain  country,  whence  it  receives  wood  and  ore,  and 
to  the  rocky  heights  of  Ofen,  which  are  favourable  to  the 
vine,  and  which  provide  good  building  stone  and  good 
wine-cellars.  Before  it  lies  a  prospect  of  immeasurable 
plains,  the  produce  of  whose  rich  cultivation  and  whose 
cattle  and  horses  are  brought  hither  to  market. 

The  blossoming  of  Budapest  into  one  of  the  finest 
modern  cities  of  Europe  is  a  work  only  of  the  last 
few  decades.  In  1869  the  population  was  but  270,000, 
now  it  is  713,000.  Ever  since  Hungary  acquired  a 
more  independent  position  under  the  constitution  of  the 
Habsburg  Empire,  its  predominant  nation  has  been 
striving  to  realise  a  national  unity,  to  which  the  de- 
velopments of  history  have  by  no  means  led  up.  The 
turning  of  Budapest  into  a  Magyar  town  was  the  first 
step  towards  this  aim.  Every  effort  is  now  made  to 
centralise  the  country ;  even  the  modern  developments 
of  travel  have  been  pressed  into  the  service  of  this 
endeavour.      The   lines    of    railway   which    meet    in    the 


226  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

capital  have  made  it  the  seat  of  a  great  milling  industry, 
of  spirit  distilleries,  of  cattle  fattening,  and  of  trade  in 
pigs ;  while,  in  another  branch,  the  manufacture  of 
machinery  for  all  the  needs  of  agricultural  life  is  con- 
centrated here.  The  leather  trade,  ship-building,  and 
ship-fitting  also  flourish.  But  the  attraction  of  this 
commercial  focus,  extending  even  beyond  the  borders 
of  Hungary,  is  not  felt  only  by  the  wares  of  commerce. 
The  various  nationalities  are  being  brought  more  and  more 
completely  under  the  influence  of  this  Magyar  centre. 
The  desire  of  Hungarian  statesmen — a  desire  which 
recalls  a  saying  of  Alexander — is  to  mix  all  the  peoples 
of  their  country  into  a  loving  cup,  whose  main  flavour 
should  be  Magyar  ;  and  nothing  has  been  of  more  sub- 
stantial assistance  to  them  than  the  zone-tariff,  established 
in  1889,  which  makes  access  to  the  capital  astoundingly 
cheap  to  the  dwellers  in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  king- 
dom. Thus  Budapest  is,  in  a  truer  sense  than  any  other 
town  of  Central  Europe,  the  heart  whose  beat  regulate? 
the  circulating  blood  of  a  strong  national  life. 

Budapest  is  the  first  in  the  series  of  double  towns 
which  border  the  lower  half  of  the  Danube,  and  are  in 
themselves  eloquent  witnesses  to  its  greatness.  Only  one 
more  of  these  pairs  of  towns  belongs  to  Hungary — 
Neusatz  and  Peter wardein  (Ujvidek,  Petervarad),  which 
are  situated  at  the  last  Danube  bridge  in  the  country, 
the  often  disputed  passage  which  leads  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Save,  with  its  pair  of  towns,  Semlin  and  Belgrade. 
This  is  the  main  road  into  the  interior  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula.  The  river  traffic  passing  beneath  this  bridge 
is  enabled  to  make  its  way  against  the  stream  for  the 
service  of  the  coalfields  at  Funfkirchen  (Pecs),  the  most 
important  town  of  the  country  on  the  west  of  the 
Danube  (Dunantul).  The  southern  frontier  of  this  dis- 
trict, the  river  Drave,  cuts  off  the  kingdom  of  Croatia 
and  Sclavonia,  16,420  square  miles,  with  2,397,000  in- 
habitants, from   Hungary  proper. 

Of  this  land  only  the  eastern  wing,  the  district 
lying   between   the   rivers    Drave    and    Save,   falls    within 


HUNGARY  227 

the  Carpathian  framework  ;  the  western  part  is  purely 
Karst  country.  The  territory  lying  between  the  two  great 
Alpine  rivers,  that  emerging  in  parallel  lines  from  the 
mountains,  not  only  raise  the  volume  of  the  Danube, 
but  force  it  to  take  their  own  course,  is  a  territory 
rich  in  wood  and  in  arable  land,  the  population  and 
productiveness  of  which  may  still  be  considerably  in- 
creased. Not  only  the  mountain  parts,  but  also  consi- 
derable tracts  of  the  plain  are  covered  by  green  forests, 
the  oaks  and  beeches  furnishing  food  to  swine.  Traffic 
in  part  follows  the  rivers  downwards,  and  in  part  passes, 
by  means  of  the  railways,  into  the  valleys  of  the  Alps 
and  to  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Both  objectives  are  better  served 
by  Agram  (Zagrab),  the  capital  and  centre  of  the  South 
Sclavonian  intellectual  life  of  the  kingdom,  than  they 
were  by  the  ancient  Siscia  (now  Sissek),  which  was 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Save  and  the  Kulpa. 

Note  on  Authorities. — In  addition  to  the  seven  volumes  of  the  work 
Oestereich-Ungarn  in  Wort  und Bild,  devoted  to  the  countries  appertain- 
ing to  the  crown  of  Stephen,  and  the  economic  writings  of  A.  von 
Matlekovitz,  I  have  been  allowed,  in  writing  this  section,  to  make  use 
of  an  unpublished  work,  Die  Magyaren  und  ihr  Land,  by  my  friend, 
Heinrich  Winkler,  who  is  certainly  the  best  authority  in  Germany  in 
regard  to  the  language  and  civilisation  of  that  race. 


16 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   ILLYRIAN   AND   BALKAN   COUNTRIES 

The  south-west  of  Croatia,  notwithstanding  its  immediate 

neighbourhood  to  the  sea,  is  so  cut  off  from  the  world, 

Karst  ^°  thinly  peopled  (scarcely  loo  to  the  square 

Countries    mile),  so  rich  in  forests  (44  per  cent,  of  the 

AND  THE        area)    and    in  neglected  pasture-land  (24  per 

Adriatic      cent.),  that    this  district    is  economically  one 

of  the  least   developed   of   the  whole  continent.     Traffic 

is   driven    back   from   the    coast   by    the    heavy    gales  of 

the  Bora.     Only  one  gateway  for  the  outlet  of  Hungarian 

commerce  to  the  sea,  and  this  due  not  so  much  to  nature 

as  to  the  energy  of  modern  engineering,  lies  open  in  the 

port   and   district   of   Fiume,  which  was  cut  away  from 

the    kingdom    of    Croatia    in    1868,    and    joined    as    an 

exclave  to  Hungary.     This  harbour  can  only  properly  be 

considered    in    connection    with     the     whole     series    of 

Adriatic  ports,    and   the   Croatian    Karst   country   is    but 

a  member   of   that   zone    of    naturally   related    countries 

which   extends   from  the  Triglav  and   the   Isonzo  as  far 

as    Montenegro.       No   other    Karst    country   except   that 

of   Carniola  is  equal  in   the  extent  of  its  forests  to  that 

of   Croatia.       Istria   and    Dalmatia   are   much    poorer    in 

timber.      Arable   and   meadow-land    greatly   diminish    in 

Istria  and  Dalmatia  (to  11  and  7  per  cent,  in  the  former 

and  1 1  and  0.8  per  cent,  in  the  latter) ;  the  vine,  on  the 

other  hand,  is  more  plentiful  in  these  countries  (9.5  and 

6.3    per  cent.)  and   in  the   neighbourhood   of    the    town 

of  Trieste   (13  per  cent.),   where  its   relative    extent    and 

economic  value   become  greater  than  in  any  other  parts 

of    the    Empire.     The  vine   is   the   source    of    livelihood 

to   the   peasant    of    the    coasts,   as    the   breeding    of   the 

338 


THE    ILLYRIAN   AND   BALKAN   COUNTRIES     229 

lesser  domestic  animals  is  to  the  dweller  in  the  rough 
mountains. 

The  most  richly  cultivated  land  in  the  whole  Adriatic 
portion  of  the  empire  is  to  be  found  in  the  carefully 
tended  plain  of  Goritz,  which  has  quite  the  character 
of  Italian  farming,  though  in  the  actual  town  which 
spreads  round  the  mountain  and  castle,  the  Sclavonian 
element  is  increasing.  Goritz,  nestling  in  the  warmest 
nook  of  the  plain  of  the  Isonzo,  and  sheltered  by  the 
mountains  from  rough  winds,  so  that  its  climate  makes 
it  a  winter  health  resort,  takes  its  share  in  the  heritage 
of  ancient  Aquileia.  The  commercial  importance  of  this 
town  was  transferred  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  Venice  ;  but, 
in  modern  times,  the  activity  of  communication  with  the 
interior  has  brought  not  only  the  trade  of  Aquileia,  but 
a  good  deal  of  the  international  trade  of  Venice  also,  back 
to  the  inner  angle  of  the  Adriatic  and  into  the  harbour 
of  Trieste. 

Charles  the  Sixth,  who  in  the  course  of  his  strife 
for  the  Spanish  throne  had  come  to  perceive  how  much 
the  value  of  countries  depended  on  the  sea,  was  the 
first  to  claim  for  Austria  a  free  share  in  maritime  trade  ; 
and  the  importance  of  Trieste  commenced  when,  in  17 19, 
he  declared  it  to  be  a  free  port.  The  place  had  not  been 
favoured  by  nature.  At  the  foot  of  the  steep  mountains 
lay  but  a  narrow  strip  of  coast,  now  swept  by  the  power- 
ful downward  rushes  of  the  Bora,  now  attacked  by  the 
w'aves  which  strong  and  persistent  winds  drove  up  from 
the  south-west.  There  was  no  natural  harbour.  Every- 
thing had  to  be  done  artificially,  nor  could  the  com- 
pletest  possible  works  alter  the  fact  that  when  the  Bora 
blows  violently,  the  harbour  is  inaccessible  even  for 
strong  steamers.  Nevertheless,  Trieste  is  a  good  example 
of  what  an  enlightened  Government  may  do  by  persis- 
tently working  towards  a  definite  end.  The  enterprise 
of  the  Austrian  Lloyd  Company,  started  in  1836  by 
Government  capital  and  subsidised  ever  since,  secures 
to  this  port  a  considerable  share  in  the  trade  of  the 
eastern     Mediterranean,     and     extends    its     commercial 


230  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

activities  to  Brazil  on  the  one  hand,  and — since  the 
completion  of  the  Suez  Canal — to  India,  China,  and 
Japan  on  the  other.  It  has  still  no  other  feeder  than 
the  Southern  Railway  from  Vienna  and  still  lacks 
direct  communication  with  South  Germany.  Growing 
attention  is  given  to  industrial  pursuits,  the  raw  mate- 
rials being  imported  from  a  distance  and  assiduously 
worked  up. 

In  spite  of  the  indefatigable  solicitude  with  which  the 
Austrian  Government  watches  over  its  port,  created  by 
so  many  sacrifices,  Fiume  begins  to  compete  with  it  suc- 
cessfully. This  town  also  was  declared  a  free  port  by 
Charles  the  Sixth  in  1725,  and  in  1776  was  assigned 
to  Hungary  by  Maria  Theresa.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  that  country  had  attained  an  independent  develop- 
ment that  Fiume  began  to  grow  into  an  important  place. 
The  harbour  works,  upon  which  seventeen  millions  of 
florins  were  expended  between  the  years  1872  and  1892, 
completely  altered  the  appearance  of  the  shore.  Large 
warehouses  with  an  elevator  keep  the  grain  in  readiness 
for  exportation,  and  in  almost  every  department  of 
seafaring,  commercial,  or  industrial  activity,  Hungary  has 
established  in  Fiume  undertakings  that  compete  with  those 
of  Trieste.  The  shipping,  however,  is  organised  with 
special  reference  to  the  west.  The  population  is  pre- 
dominantly Croatian  and  Italian.  The  place  is  in  course 
of  rapid  growth,  and  is  extending  the  circle  of  its  inland 
influence  not  only  into  the  cornfields  of  Hungary  and  the 
forests  of  Croatia,  but  also  into  Bosnia.  This  development, 
too,  of  Fiume  is  a  triumph  of  modern  industry.  Nature 
did  not  favour  the  approaches.  The  waters  of  the  Quar- 
nero  are  stormy  and  inhospitable. 

While  the  busy  trading  ports  of  the  Adriatic  lie  on  the 
inmost  shore  of  northerly  gulfs,  the  peninsula  projecting 
between  them  is  the  site  of  the  empire's  naval  port — Pola. 
Rome  had  a  naval  station  here  ;  Napoleon  recognised  the 
value  of  this  fine  natural  harbour  ;  and  now  Austria  is 
once  more  making  use  of  it.  Room  is  found  alongside  of 
the  navy  for  the  modest  trade  of  Istria  ;    but   Istria  and 


THE    ILLYRIAN   AND   BALKAN    COUNTRIES     231 

the  shores  of  the  Gulfs  of  Trieste  and  Fiume,  could  not 
alone  furnish  strength  enough  for  the  protection  of 
Austria-Hungary's  maritime  trade.  The  weather-hardened 
peoples  of  the  Dalmatian  coast  whence  old  Rome  took 
the  crews  of  her  Adriatic  fleet,  now  prevail  in  the  marine 
of  Austria. 

The  sardine  and  tunny  fisheries  of  Dalmatia,  and  the 
preserving  processes  arising  out  of  them  are  progressing 
and  increasing.  Some  three-fifths  of  the  total  maritime 
activity  of  the  empire  belongs  to  Dalmatia.  A  con- 
siderable trade  is  divided  among  its  numerous  bays. 
Where  the  land  at  the  foot  of  the  Velebit  Mountains 
and  the  Dinaric  Alps  widens  into  greater  breadth, 
between  the  two  groups  of  islands  into  which  it  breaks 
up  on  the  north  and  south,  lie  the  three  principal 
trading  towns,  Zara,  Sebenico,  and  Spalato.  The  first 
commercial  position  belongs,  not  to  Zara,  whose  site, 
projecting  to  the  north,  pointed  it  out  to  all  the 
rulers  who  came  from  the  north,  Venetians,  Hungarians, 
and  now  Austrians,  as  the  seat  of  the  provincial  govern- 
ment, but  to  Spalato,  the  successor  of  the  ancient  Salona. 
New  streets  and  squares  are  adding  themselves  to  the 
original  centre  so  strangely  built  into  the  palace  of 
Diocletian,  and  are  encircling  the  safe  bay.  An  important 
future  may  yet  await  the  town  if  it  can  succeed  in  making 
the  bay  of  Salona,  whence  the  old  Roman  roads  diverged 
into  the  interior  of  the  country,  the  terminus  of  a  railway 
into  Bosnia.  The  much-desired  opening  up  of  the  hinter- 
land is  likely  to  touch  Ragusa  sooner,  but  there  is  no 
danger  that  the  old  historic  town  itself,  which  preserved 
its  independence  up  to  the  times  of  Napoleon,  will  have  the 
charm  of  its  quiet  walls,  its  little  harbour,  and  brightly 
coloured  landscape  disturbed  by  the  smoke  and  noise  of 
modern  traffic.  The  scene  occupied  by  this  will  almost 
certainly  be  the  Bay  of  Gravosa,  which,  divided  from 
Ragusa  by  a  hilly  barrier,  forms  one  of  the  finest  natural 
harbours  of  these  coasts. 

The  southern  part  of  Dalmatia  is  a  narrow  strip  of  coast 
at    the    foot    of   the    Montenegrin    Mountains.       Cattaro, 


232  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Austria's  strongly  fortified  naval  station,  is  still  the  most 
important  opening  for  communication  between  the 
Montenegrins  and  the  outer  world,  and  naturally  the 
object  of  their  keenest  desire.  The  wish  to  keep 
Montenegro  from  the  sea,  which  expresses  itself  in  the 
Austrian  fortifications  that  press  close  upon  the  frontier, 
has  led  the  Austrians  to  take  possession  of  Spizza.  From 
this  point  they  mount  guard  over  the  Bay  of  Antivari, 
which  port,  however,  and  the  more  southern  Dulcigno 
give  the  Montenegrins  but  a  far-off  access  to  the  sea, 
only  to  be  reached  across  a  high  barrier  of  mountains. 
The  value  of  this  short  seaboard,  of  some  twenty-five 
miles,  is  further  diminished  by  Austria's  exercise  of  police 
rights  in  matters  of  navigation  and  sanitation,  and  by  the 
prohibition  to  keep  war-ships.  Thus  Montenegro,  in  spite 
of  the  extension  of  its  territory,  is  more  closely  hemmed 
in  by  having  Austria  for  a  strong  neighbour  on  its  entirely 
arbitrary  western  frontier  than  it  used  to  be  under  the 
elastic  and  variable  pressure  upon  its  enclosure  by  Turkey. 
Nor  is  the  share  of  Montenegro  in  the  Lake  of  Scutari 
and  the  mouths  of  the  Boyana  allowed  free  play,  on 
account  of  the  intractable  animosity  of  their  Albanian 
neighbours.  Only  the  future  can  show  whether  the  little 
state  will  be  able  really  to  use  its  new  hard-won  possessions 
in  the  fruitful  lowland  and  along  the  coast  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  increase  its  own  prosperity. 

At  the  present  time  the  countries  of  the  Adriatic,  even 
if  we  exclude  the  large  town  of  Trieste,  show  a  rapidly 
descending  scale  of  population  and  social  importance  as 
we  advance  to  the  south-east.  Herzegovina  stands  in  the 
same  low  rank  with  Montenegro,  which  it  resembles  in 
natural  character,  and  in  the  descent  and  disposition  of 
its  inhabitants.  Owing  to  their  common  political  fate  it 
is  always  spoken  of  in  the  same  breath  with  Bosnia,  but 
has  no  likeness  to  the  Bosnian  wooded  mountains  and 
•green  valleys,  being  a  poor,  and  in  many  parts  an  un- 
watered,  Karst  country.  Wherever  a  watercourse  meets 
the  dazzled  eye  there  is  an  oasis,  which  ceases  where  the 
water  disappears.     Busy  life  is  only  found  at  Mostar,  in 


THE    ILLYRIAN   AND   BALKAN   COUNTRIES     233 

the  basin  of  the  Lower  Narenta,  fertile,  but  burning  hot  in 
summer. 

Bosnia  and  Servia,  sister  countries  linked  together  by 
nature,  send  their  waters  north-westward  into  the  common 
channel    that    carries   the    Save    and  the  Danube 
from    Belgrade    to    the    Iron    Gate.     From    the  ^osm\ 

AND 

point  of  view  of  climate  the  two  countries  are  ceryi^ 
practically  one.  In  regard  to  warmth  the  rise  of 
the  land  towards  the  south  outweighs  the  difference  of 
latitude.  Both  countries  are  distinguished  by  extensive 
oak  forests,  which  supply  excellent  food  for  the  swine 
that  play  a  large  part  in  the  life  of  the  people  and  in 
the  economic  activities  of  the  country.  Another  im- 
portant product  for  exportation  is  common  to  both 
countries — the  harvest  of  those  great  plum  orchards  amid 
which  the  villages  lie  hidden.  No  other  district  in  the 
world  seems  to  be  even  approximately  so  favourable  to 
the  growth  of  this  fruit.  That  Bosnia  and  Servia  are 
peopled  by  the  same  Slavonic  stock  makes  an  ethno- 
logical link,  too,  between  the  two  countries  ;  but  their 
position  in  the  world  and  their  political  destinies  have 
brought  about  different  developments. 

The  confined  character  of  Bosnia  affected  its  religious 
development  in  a  most  decisive  manner.  In  the  twelfth 
century  the  sect  of  Bogumils  arose  here,  whose  concep- 
tion of  the  world  and  of  religious  life,  which  they  repre- 
sented as  a  continual  conflict  between  God  and  the  Devil, 
rested,  like  that  of  the  Manicheans,  upon  a  supposed 
duality  of  supernatural  powers  ruling  the  universe.  This 
sect  was  suppressed  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, but  did  not  disappear.  Repudiated  by  fellow-Chris- 
tians, it  yielded  many  renegades  to  the  creed  of  the  in- 
vading Mohamedans.  Thus  Bosnia  became  the  strongest 
north-western  outpost  of  Islamism. 

In  the  course  of  its  twenty  years'  rule  Austria  has  done 
wonders  in  the  way  of  improving  the  country,  has  made 
roads,  built  railways,  opened  up  the  treasures  of  the  earth, 
caused  the  surface  to  be  cultivated,  and  created  promising 


234  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

industries.  Tourists  in  considerable  number  enliven  the 
country,  which  has  a  particular  charm,  due  to  the  Eastern 
life,  that  has  in  no  way  disappeared  with  the  awakening 
of  the  people  to  modern  activity  and  remunerative  labour. 
If  to  the  existing  radii  of  communication  are  added  rail- 
ways to  Mitrovitza  and  Novi  Bazar,  the  basin  of  Bosnia, 
already  connected  with  the  Narenta  Valley  and  the 
Adriatic,  will  be  open  also  to  the  Gulf  of  Salonica. 
The  19,700  square  miles  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
were  inhabited  in  1895  by  1,568,000  (eighty  to  the 
square  mile). 

The  number  and  density  of  the  population  in  the 
occupied  territory  is  thus  still  below  that  of  the  kingdom 
of  Servia  (18,860  square  miles;  2,384,000  inhabitants). 
But  the  progress  of  the  latter  country  has  been  very  much 
slower  in  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years.  The  natives 
lack  neither  skill  nor  diligence  in  their  home  industries 
of  wool  and  carpet  weaving,  but  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  region  is  left  almost  untouched,  and  modern 
industrial  processes,  all  the  natural  essentials  of  which 
are  at  hand  in  abundance,  have  only  lately  begun  to 
develop.  Over  most  of  the  country  agriculture  persists 
in  its  primitive  rough  methods.  Agricultural  exports  fall 
far  below  those  of  cattle.  The  vineyards  were  formerly 
considerable,  but  three-fourths  of  them  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  phylloxera.  The  exploiting  of  timber, 
where  seriously  begun,  has  rapidly  degenerated  into 
destruction.  The  road  system  is  but  little  developed  ; 
the  difficulty  and  expense  of  transport  obstructs  every 
branch  of  production,  and  diminishes  the  value  to  the 
country  even  of  those  great  railways  which  have  been 
forced  upon  it  by  foreign  enterprise,  and  in  part  by 
international  agreements,  because  its  geographical  posi- 
tion necessitated  its  inclusion  in  the  European  system  of 
traffic. 

Belgrade,  in  spite  of  its  eventful  history,  produces 
the  impression  of  a  new  town.  Not  long  ago  it  might 
have  been  called  a  village,  though  indeed  a  large  one. 
That  countrified  character  which  Belgrade  has  only  lost 


THE    ILLYRIAN   AND   BALKAN   COUNTRIES     235 

during  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years  still  clings  to  most 
of  Servia's  other  towns.  The  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
from  the  junction  with  the  Save  to  that  with  the  Timok, 
is  Servian.  Thus  Raduyevats,  the  lowest  Servian  town 
upon  the  river,  was  able  to  have  direct  communication 
with  the  sea  even  before  the  regulation  of  the  water- 
course at  the  Iron  Gate.  Now  Belgrade  itself  can  be 
reached  by  the  vessels  of  the  Lower  Danube.  Inner 
Servia  could  make  even  fuller  use  of  this  waterway  if 
the  Morava  also  were  again  made  navigable,  as  it  was 
down  to  the  seventeenth  century  ;  but  this  river  is 
closed  in  many  places  by  mills  and  fisheries.  Beside  it 
runs  the  railway  from  Belgrade  to  Salonica,  which  leaves 
Servian  soil  at  Vranya.  Among  the  many  towns  which  it 
touches  is  one  of  great  antiquity,  occupying  an  inde- 
structible natural  position — Nissa,  where  the  railway  to 
Constantinople  and  a  road  into  the  Timok  valley  branch 
off.  The  northern  border,  the  centre,  and  the  east  of  the 
country  are  thus  traversed  by  important  lines  of  inter- 
national communication,  but  the  mountain  country  of  the 
south-west  remains  untouched  by  these  currents  of  general 
life  from  without.  Great  duties  in  the  direction  of  internal 
social  development  still  lie  before  the  country.  Quiet, 
honest  labour  would  be  more  advantageous  to  it  than 
pretentious  boasting  about  future  claims,  that  are  in 
glaring  contrast  with  the  weakness  of  a  disorganised 
budget  and  unbridled  party  dissensions. 

Bulgaria  is  the  most  recent  of  European  political 
formations.  It  gained  its  footing  under  very  difficult 
conditions,   but   by    the   addition    of    the  „ 

Turkish  province  of  East   Roumelia,  the     ^p  ^jjg  Lower 
tributary     principality     became     a     state     Danube  and 
comprising     37,320     square     miles     and     the  Black  Sea. 
3,733,000    inhabitants.     The    division    of     —Bulgaria 

.,         ,         -.  u       *u        o    11  u-    u  AND  ROUMANIA. 

the  territory  by  the   Balkans,  which  run 
through  the  centre,  involves  no  risk  to  the  country's  con- 
tinuity,  because   the  inhabitants   are  of    the    same   stock. 
In  times  of  danger  it   is  rather  an  advantage,  as  giving 


236  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

an  inner  line  of  defence  in  case  of  any  conceivable  attack. 
The  frontier  lies  most  open  towards  Turkey,  to  which  the 
waters  run  down  from  the  wheat-growing  plains  of  East 
Roumelia.  The  products  of  the  country  do  not  take  quite 
the  same  direction,  but  are  chiefly  carried  by  the  railway 
from  the  interior  to  the  Bay  of  Burgas,  which,  however, 
has  no  harbour  for  ships,  but  only  an  imperfect  roadstead. 
The  favourable  climate  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Balkan  allows  of  the  cultivation  of  rose-gardens  among 
the  chestnut  groves  at  its  foot,  and  the  perfumery  trade  of 
Europe  is  supplied  from  them  ;  vineyards  follow  the  foot 
of  the  Sredna  Gora  and  the  mountains  of  Rhodope,  and 
in  the  warm  moist  hollows  around  Tartar  Bazardjik  and 
Philippopolis  there  are  fields  of  rice.  In  addition  to  the 
many  products  of  the  land,  the  harvest  of  which  brings 
down  workers  every  year  from  the  Balkans,  East 
Roumelia  had  formerly  extensive  trades  which  supplied 
many  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire  with  woollen  stuffs  and 
with  leather  and  metal  goods.  The  removal  of  the 
Turkish  population  and  the  customs  frontiers  have  led  to 
the  decay  of  these  old  industries.  In  this  respect,  too,  the 
country  is  passing  through  a  difficult  period  of  transition. 
The  site  of  the  capital  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  Philippo- 
polis, in  the  centre  of  the  plain,  was  determined  by  seven 
rocky  syenite  hills,  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  Maritza, 
and  it  has  remained,  ever  since  it  was  founded  by  the 
maker  of  the  Macedonian  Empire,  the  principal  place  in 
the  plain,  though  its  unfavourable  situation  in  regard  to  the 
more  important  mountain  passes  to  the  north  and  south, 
has  always  kept  it  within  fixed  limits.  Sofia,  the  capital  of 
Bulgaria,  stands  in  a  better  position  in  the  basin  at  the 
source  of  the  Isker,  and  near  the  hot  springs  that  rise  at 
the  foot  of  the  majestic  Vitosha.  Although  the  narrow 
gorge  of  the  Isker  through  the  Balkans  is  impassable, 
this  point  in  ancient  Serdica  is  still  not  only  the 
mathematical  and  hydrographic  centre  of  the  main 
peninsula,  but  also  a  crossing-place  of  important  lines  of 
communication.  This  fact  made  so  deep  an  impression 
upon  Constantine,  who  knew  and  appreciated  the  country 


THE    ILLYRIAN   AND   BALKAN   COUNTRIES     237 

round  his  home  at  Nissa  more  exactly  than  any  other 
ruler  of  antiquity,  that  he  exclaimed,  "  Serdica  is  my  Rome," 
and  seriously  inclined  to  make  that  place  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  until  weighty  reasons  led  him  to  decide  upon 
Byzantium.  After  a  long  period  of  neglect,  Serdica,  which 
was  not  called  by  the  name  of  Sofia  (after  its  cathedral, 
now  destroyed  by  an  earthquake)  until  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  is  reviving  again,  and  when  the  railway 
in  course  of  construction  from  Bucharest  to  Salonica  here 
crosses  that  from  Belgrade  to  Constantinople,  the  Bulgarian 
capital  will  recover  the  importance  which  it  owed  of  old 
to  its  position.  In  regard  to  the  present  boundaries  of 
the  country,  the  position  of  the  capital  seems  singularly 
out  of  the  centre.  This  would  no  longer  be  the  case  if 
the  hopes  of  the  Bulgarians  for  the  future  possession  of 
Macedonia  were  to  be  fulfilled  even  in  part.  Even  now, 
since  the  inclusion  of  East  Roumelia,  the  southern  slope 
of  the  Balkan  bears  a  decidedly  larger  share  of  the  in- 
habitants and  of  the  power  of  Bulgaria  than  does  the 
northern.  Varna,  the  largest  maritime  town  in  Bul- 
garia, will  certainly  go  to  decay  unless  its  insecure 
roadstead  is  strengthened  by  the  formation  of  a  har- 
bour. Its  naval  importance  is  distinctly  less  than  that 
of  Constanza  in  the  Dobruja,  with  a  mole  and  harbour. 
This  little  seaport,  which  suffered  absolute  depopula- 
tion even  in  the  wars  of  the  last  century,  has  been 
gaining  in  activity  and  promise  since  the  erection  of  a 
solid  bridge  over  the  Danube  at  Czernavoda  linked  it 
with  the  railway  system   and  the  capital  of  Roumania. 

The  superiority  of  Roumania  to  Bulgaria  is  shown 
even  more  plainly  than  along  the  sea-coast  in  its  utilisa- 
tion of  the  Lower  Danube,  since  the  acquisition  of  the 
Dobruja.  In  all  the  pairs  of  towns  that  have  grown  up 
at  the  more  important  crossing-places  of  the  Danube,  the 
Roumanian  place  is  always  more  active  in  commerce  than 
the  Bulgarian,  even  when  its  population  is  smaller.  For 
a  long  time  navigation  on  the  Lower  Danube  was  very 
backward.  Now,  however,  great  quantities  of  grain  and 
other  agricultural  produce  are  carried  down,  as  well  as 


238  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

wares  from  the  mills  and  distilleries  along  the  river-banks, 
part  going  directly  to  the  Black  Sea,  but  the  larger  portion 
to  the  river-ports  of  Braila,  Galatz,  and  Sulina,  there  to  be 
transferred  from  the  river-boats  into  large  sea-going 
vessels.  Of  these  towns,  in  which  sea-traffic  comes  far 
inland,  Braila,  where  the  river,  after  a  long  separation, 
gathers  the  waters  into  one  channel  again,  above  the 
junction  with  the  Sereth,  now  succeeds  in  taking  the  first 
place.  This  rising  centre  has  taken  most  of  the  trade  of 
Wallachia  from  Galatz,  which  lies,  almost  entirely 
surrounded  by  water,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Pruth 
and  the  Sereth,  and  is  more  conveniently  placed  for  the 
Moldau  and  the  Bukovina,  which  send  hither  not  only 
their  farm  produce,  but  also  great  quantities  of  timber 
from  the  Carpathian  forests.  The  trade  of  these  two  river- 
towns  is  carefully  fostered  by  the  Roumanian  Govern- 
ment. A  considerable  part  of  it  is  in  the  hands  of 
Greek  firms  ;  the  Greek  merchant  service,  too,  contributes 
a  growing  contingent  of  the  vessels  which  come  into  the 
estuary  of  Sulina,  bringing  European  manufactured  articles 
and  coal,  and  taking  away  heavy  cargoes  of  the  country 
products.  The  flag  most  strongly  represented  in  this  port 
is  still  the  British,  although  its  proportional  superiority 
is  being  greatly  diminished  by  the  efforts  of  the  Danube 
States  to  get  navigation  into  their  own  hands.  Hungary 
has  lately  taken  an  important  step  forward  by  the 
establishment  of  its  Levantine  merchant  service,  and 
Roumania  is  also  successfully  developing  one. 

The  river,  which  favours  this  entrance  of  Roumania 
into  the  commerce  of  the  world,  is  also  a  most  valuable 
source  of  livelihood  to  the  people  of  the  country.  The 
annual  takings  of  fish  in  the  channels  and  in  the  extensive 
lagoons  along  the  banks  of  the  Danube  and  the  sea-shore 
are  estimated  at  from  80,000  to  100,000  tons. 

In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  reed-beds  of 
the  delta  and  the  network  of  islands  above  Braila,  lies  the 
driest  part  of  Roumania.  The  steppes  of  the  Dobruja, 
and  the  not  much  more  favoured  country  on  the  opposite 
western  bank  of  the  Danube,  form  in  the  centre   of  the 


THE    ILLYRIAN   AND   BALKAN   COUNTRIES     239 

two-winged  country  a  territory  of  more  than  10,000 
square  miles,  where — excluding  the  one  town  Braila — 
there  are  living  but  470,000  persons  (47  per  square  mile). 
This  tract  of  country,  a  desert  subject  to  alternations  of 
excessive  heat  in  summer  and  storms  in  winter,  emphasises 
the  division  between  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 

It  is  only  since  the  establishment  of  Roumania  as  an 
independent  state  that  "the  Paris  of  the  East" — as  the 
Roumanians  rather  pretentiously  call  their  capital — has 
risen  to  the  external  brilliancy  of  a  royal  residence.  Its 
situation  in  the  hot  and  dusty  plain  makes  summer  hard  to 
endure  in  it.  The  court  generally  retires  to  Sinaya  at  the 
foot  of  the  Bucsecs,  in  the  pleasant  coolness  of  a  Carpa- 
thian valley,  and  the  Boyars  too  seek  cooler  places  in  the 
country.  A  short  railway  journey  takes  us  from  the  plain 
to  the  encircling  hills  with  their  shady  groves  of  plum 
trees  and  their  vineyards,  and  beyond  these  lie  the  woody 
mountains,  from  which  it  is  hoped  that  the  future  may 
obtain  more  mineral  treasures  than  those  found  at  present : 
salt  and  natural  oil.  The  zone  of  these  mineral  products 
passes  round  the  outer  border  of  the  mountains,  and  on 
into  Moldavia.  The  towns  in  it  are  characterised  by  a 
strong  Jewish  admixture.  Jassy,  the  old  residence  of  the 
Hospodars,  which  lies  in  a  side-valley  of  the  Pruth  basin, 
is  by  far  the  most  important  of  them,  and  its  pictu- 
resque position  and  clear  mountain  streams  give  it  an  ad.- 
vantage  over  Bucharest.  The  roads  to  Odessa  and  Galatz 
divide  here  ;  but  the  main  line  of  communication  of  the 
Carpathian  country  follows  the  Sereth  farther  to  the  west 
until  it  divides  into  two  parts,  running  to  Bucharest  and  to 
Constanza. 

The  carefully  laid  out  system  of  communication  shows, 
like  every  other  department  of  life  in  Roumania,  an  earnest 
effort  at  advancement.  A  position  of  geographical  im- 
portance, extensive  tracts  of  fertile  country,  national  unity 
and  the  energy  of  the  people  promise  to  this  state  (with 
its  50,600  square  miles  and  its  59,130,000  inhabitants)  a 
considerable  future. 


240  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Note  on  Authorities. — Two  volumes  of  the  work  begun  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Crown  Prince  Rudolf  deal  with  the  Adriatic  provinces 
of  Austria,  while  another  is  devoted  to  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  This 
book,  admirably  written  by  authors  familiar  with  the  Occupied  Territories, 
undoubtedly  stands  out  superior  to  the  mass  of  literature  which  has 
grown  up  around  these  newly  opened  countries. 

A  description  by  a  single  author  is  expected  from  Edward  Richter. 

The  best  work  about  the  Balkan  countries  is  Constantine  Jirecek's 
Das  Fiirstentum  Bulgarien,  1891.  Spiridion  Gopcevic's  Serbien  und 
die  Serben,  1888,  is  not  to  be  compared  with  it. 

The  older  works  of  Kanitz  are  still  indispensable. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

SOUTH   AND   CENTRAL   GERMANY 

The  most  important  members  of  the  complex  mountains 
of  Central  Europe  unite  in  enclosing  an  expanse  whose 
waters  escape  in  two  great  rivers  at  Bingen  and  at  Passau, 
whence  their  courses  cross  rocky  barriers  the  original 
dangers  of  which  have  only  been  fully  overcome  by  the 
engineering  skill  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Apart  from 
these  two  waterways,  the  mountain  framework  of  South 
Germany  lies  open  at  several  large  gaps  to  communication 
with  its  neighbours,  whose  influence  has  been  all  the 
more  strongly  felt  because  South  Germany,  notwith- 
standing the  prevalence  of  fiat  formations,  does  not  make 
a  united  whole,  but  is,  on  the  contrary,  conspicuously 
divided.  The  south,  up  to  the  Danube,  is  filled  by  the 
German  Alpine  foreland,  the  west  by  the  Upper  Rhine 
valley  ;  between  the  two  prevail  the  terraces  of  South 
Germany  with  the  Neckar  and  the  Main  flowing  through 
them  ;  and  the  three  sections,  like  a  piece  of  a  fan 
whose  ribs  are  represented  by  the  Black  Forest  and  the 
Rauhe  Alb,  meet  between  Schaffhausen  and  Basle.  Neither 
the  distribution  of  the  Germanic  races  nor  the  political 
demarcation  coincides  with  this  division  of  the  land. 
The  Alpine  foreland  was  only  occupied  by  the  Bavarians 
up  to  the  Lech  ;  there  began  the  domain  of  the  Alemanni 
or  Swabians,  which  comprised  the  Alpine  foreland  to 
beyond  the  Aar,  the  Upper  Rhine  valley  and  the  moun- 
tains round  it  northward  to  the  Neckar  and  including 
the  basin  of  the  Neckar.  Finally,  the  Franks  filled  the 
Palatinate,  the  piece  of  the  Upper  Rhine  valley  lying 
beyond  Swabia,  and  the  whole  Main  basin.  This  posi- 
tion of    the    Franks   between    the    tribes    of    South    and 


242  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

North  Germany  might  appear  originally  to  offer  a  pro- 
mise of  uniting  and  ruling  the  whole,  but,  later  on,  it 
caused  them  to  have  difficulty  in  maintaining  indepen- 
dence even  within  their  own  borders.  The  very  districts  of 
Franconia  and  Swabia,  in  which  Otto  von  Freising  (1150) 
saw  the  firmest  support  of  the  German  Empire,  were 
those  most  broken  up  in  the  Middle  Ages  by  political 
divisions.  Nowhere  were  separate  communities,  free 
towns,  castles,  and  monasteries,  walled  in  and  armed 
against  one  another,  more  numerous.  These  districts, 
which  were  the  inmost  and  safest  part  of  the  Empire,  and 
which  were  not  driven  to  hold  together  by  any  pressure 
of  great  outward  danger,  carried  the  feudal  system  to  such 
an  extreme  that  the  territory  was  broken  into  little  pieces. 
The  western  part  fell  a  prey  to  France  ;  the  fragments 
of  the  other  parts  passed  through  all  the  stages  of  hum- 
drum comfort,  absurdity,  and  misery  that  belong  to 
extremely  small  states,  until  the  wars  that  followed  the 
French  Revolution  swept  them  together  and  recast  them 
into  a  few  states  of  moderate  size,  which,  however,  enjoyed 
no  protection  on  their  exposed  side,  until  the  conquest  of 
Alsace  and  Lorraine.  The  following  are  the  territories  at 
present  existing :  the  kingdoms  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtem- 
berg,  the  grand-duchies  of  Baden  and  Hesse,  and  Alsace 
Lorraine,  besides  the  little  principality  of  Hohenzollern 
which  has  been  Prussian  since  1849.  Geographical  pre- 
sentation cannot  conveniently  follow  the  political  boun- 
daries, but  would  shut  out  Bavarian  Vogtland  and  Upper 
Hesse,  and  include  in  place  of  them  the  Prussian  district  at 
the  southern  foot  of  theTaunus  from  Hanau  totheRheingau, 
thus  giving  to  South  Germany  a  slightly  smaller  area  (50,800 
square  miles),  and  a  little  more  population,  13  J  millions. 

The    most    genial    part    of    the    Alpine    Foreland    of 
Germany    is     the    shores    of    the    Lake     of     Constance, 
dominated  by  the  glorious  Alps,  and  girdled 
The  Alpine         ^^y  vineyards  and   orchards.     The    course 
Foreland  of         fi_-i.i  j.    ■>   r^       j.  c 

Germany  history  has   prevented  Constance  from 

gaining  all  the  advantages   that   naturally 
belong    to   its    position,   and   has   permitted  it   to    enjoy 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    243 

only  a  slight  superiority  over  the  other  towns  of  the 
lake.  For  traffic  between  Germany  and  Switzerland, 
which  has  to  cross  the  lake,  the  towns  in  Wiirtem- 
berg  and  Bavaria  are  more  conveniently  situated.  As 
we  go  from  them  northward  into  the  tableland,  woods 
and  heath  grow  more  extensive,  and  villages — in  Bavaria 
single  farmhouses — lie  farther  apart,  with  wide  pastures 
and  cornfields  between.  The  larger  towns  are  always 
linked  to  the  deeply  cut  furrows  of  the  rapid  rivers. 

Augusta  Vindelicorum  was  the  first  capital.  It  col- 
lected the  traffic  of  the  Roman  roads  that  crossed  the 
Alps  between  the  Spliigen  and  the  Brenner,  and 
offered  to  the  traffic  of  the  whole  Alpine  foreland  a 
central  point  about  equidistant  from  Geneva  and  from 
Vienna.  The  full  Alpine  rivers  of  the  Lech  and  the 
Wertach,  which  formed  a  natural  protection  by  sur- 
rounding the  site  and  uniting  below  it,  no  doubt  fixed 
the  place  of  the  Roman  colony  ;  while,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  they,  and  the  smaller  streams  running  from  the 
well-watered  rubble  of  the  Lechfeld,  served  to  sup- 
port the  busy  and  diligent  industries  which  made  Augs- 
burg a  wealthy  tovs'n  holding  a  position  of  import- 
ance in  international  trade.  Situated  on  nearly  the  same 
meridian  as  Verona  and  Nuremberg,  Augsburg  was  well 
fitted  to  become  the  agent  of  trade  between  Venice  and 
Central  Germany.  The  most  direct  continuation  of  the 
Brenner  road  had  its  terminus  here,  and  to  the  north 
across  the  Danube  the  deep  valley  of  the  Ries  opened, 
in  which  the  roads  to  the  Neckar  and  to  the  Upper  Main 
divided.  It  was  not  until  the  internal  conflicts  of 
Germany  after  the  Reformation  that  this  free  town 
dropped  behind  as  compared  with  other  places  carefully 
fostered  by  their  princes.  Augsburg  is,  indeed,  thanks  to 
its  abundant  water-power,  once  more  a  great  centre  of 
the  textile  trades,  and,  thanks  to  its  situation,  once  more 
a  great  nucleus  of  traffic  ;  but  it  is  only  the  third  town 
of  Bavaria,  and  is  quite  overshadowed  by  the  capital. 

Munich  is  situated  upon  the  field  of  gravel  brought 
down  by  the  melting  water  of  Alpine  glaciers.  It  was 
17 


244  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

recommended  to  the  Bavarian  dukes  by  its  central  posi- 
tion between  the  Lech  and  the  Inn,  between  the  Alps 
and  the  Danube.  Even  before  the  Thirty  Years'  War  this 
was  considered  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  towns  in 
Germany.  But  its  development  into  a  great  city  belongs 
entirely  to  the  nineteenth  century.  The  recasting  of  the 
whole  system  of  communication  in  the  railway  epoch 
enabled  the  Bavarian  Government  to  raise  Munich  into 
an  important  centre  of  traffic,  and  especially  to  fix  here 
the  crossing  of  the  highways  from  Paris  to  Vienna,  and 
from  Berlin  to  Rome.  At  the  same  time,  Munich  de- 
veloped its  manufactures,  and  a  fresh  impulse  has  been 
given  to  this  advance  by  the  utilisation  of  the  Isar's  water- 
power.  The  first  place  as  to  quantity  of  production  is 
occupied  by  the  great  breweries.  The  manufacture  of 
machinery  and  utilisation  of  the  raw  materials — marble 
and  wood — from  the  mountains  have  also  made  great 
strides.  In  a  town  where  1700  artists  are  at  work,  manu- 
factures can  hardly  fail  to  be  touched  by  some  ennobling 
breath  of  ideality.  Science,  too,  has  been  cared  for,  and 
the  important  applied  branches  of  it  constantly  find 
themselves  faced  by  difficult  technical  tasks  and  by  the 
problems  arising  out  of  ever-new  methods  of  employing 
the  forces  of  nature.  Munich  has  thus  become  a  centre 
of  civilisation  of  universal  importance,  and  far  outstripped 
the  development  of  the  towns  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube. 

A  little  below  the  mouth  of  the  Iller  arose  Uim,  the 
starting-point  of  navigation,  and  the  place  from  which  the 
Geislingen  path  carried  the  Alpine  traffic  into  the  Neckar 
basin.  The  now  completed  wonderful  tower  of  the  Gothic 
cathedral,  the  highest  stone  building  on  the  Continent 
(528  feet  high),  stands  like  a  proud  memorial  to  the 
might  and  pride  of  the  citizens  in  the  old  free  town,  and 
looks  down  on  the  ring  of  forts  which  testifies  that  the 
importance  of  this  position  is  by  no  means  entirely  a  thing 
of  the  past. 

The  northernmost  bend  of  the  Danube  offered  a  still 
happier  site.  Here  as  early  as  the  sixth  century 
Ratisbon  was  the  seat  of  government  of   the  Bavarians. 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    245 

From  this  point  began  the  advance  of  German  coloni- 
sation towards  the  east,  and  hence  trade  took  possession 
of  the  Danube.  But  a  river  that  ran  into  foreign 
countries  was  not  in  those  days  a  safe  roadway  for  far- 
reaching  enterprises.  From  the  era  of  the  crusades  the 
sphere  of  influence  of  the  Danube  town  diminished.  The 
more  resolutely  it  defended  its  independence  as  a  free 
city,  the  more  determined  became  the  endeavours  of  the 
dukes  of  Bavaria  to  find  for  themselves  another  centre  of 
power.  So  successful  were  they,  that  long  before  the 
last  meeting  of  the  German  Diet — of  which  it  had  be- 
come the  permanent  seat — Ratisbon  had  fallen  far  behind 
Munich.  Its  reunion  with  Bavaria  came  too  late  to  change 
this  state  of  affairs,  though  the  development  of  the  railway 
system,  and  the  improved  navigabiUty  of  the  Danube, 
have  breathed  new  life  into  the  town.  It  is  now  the 
capital  of  the  Upper  Palatinate. 

The  boundary  by  which  the  Alpine  foreland  and  the 
Upper   Palatinate,  the  waters  of  which  likewise  drain  to 
the  Black  Sea,  are  divided  from  the  right- 
hand  tributaries  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  con-   "^"^  Districts 

r  r  ^         u    A       OFTHENeCKAR 

sists,  not  in  the  sharp  line  of  a  watershed,  ^^^  ^^^  Main 
but  in  a  broad  sparsely  peopled  belt  of 
Jurassic  limestones  and  ill-watered  plateaus,  the  Swabian 
portion  of  which  only  obtained  water  enough  for  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  inhabitants  by  means  of  irrigation  works 
on  a  large  scale  that  were  carried  out  in  the  years  between 
1876  and  1885.  The  uninviting  character  of  these  table- 
lands increased  the  density  of  population  in  the  villages 
and  little  towns  on  the  Neckar.  Here  subdivision  of 
property  and  intensity  of  cultivation  are  carried  to  the 
highest  possible  pitch.  The  increase  of  population — unless 
it  swells  the  stream  of  emigration — can  only  find  subsist- 
ence by  subserving  the  manifold  industrial  employments 
by  which  the  whole  country  is  permeated.  These  have 
brought  fresh  life  to  many  a  little  old  historical  town, 
but  have  not  created  any  of  the  large,  cheerless,  smoky 
towns  that  generally  rise  upon  coalfields.     An  old  Roman 


246  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

town  once  lay  in  the  warm  and  friendly  valley-opening  of 
Cannstadt,  which  was  formerly  reckoned  as  the  starting- 
place  of  navigation  on  the  Neckar.  Now,  however,  it  is 
but  a  suburb  of  the  capital  of  the  country,  Stuttgart,  which 
lies,  with  its  splendid  squares  and  web  of  streets  pressed 
in  between  vineyards,  in  an  enclosed  valley  to  the  left, 
situated  amid  beautiful  and  picturesque  scenery  but  off 
the  natural  line  of  traffic.  There  was  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  the  locality  to  favour  the  growth  of  a  large 
town.  But  the  very  distance  and  independence  of  Augs- 
burg, and  of  Ulm,  the  natural  capital  of  Swabia,  and  the 
lack  of  any  predominant  centre  of  population  in  the  Neckar 
country,  made  it  easier  for  the  rulers  of  Wiirtemberg  to 
raise  the  place  they  had  chosen.  The  line  from  Paris  to 
Vienna  has  had  to  leave  the  Neckar  valley  and  make  a 
long  loop  in  order  to  touch  Stuttgart  at  all,  and  modern 
engineering  has  made  an  outlet  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
valley's  cul-de-sac.  But  the  main  causes  of  Stuttgart's 
prosperity  are  the  activity  of  the  Swabian  people,  concen- 
trated at  this  point  by  their  rulers,  and  the  skill  with  which 
branches  of  industry  that  do  not  depend  so  very  much 
upon  locality  have  been  transferred  hither.  Stuttgart  is 
one  of  the  leading  seats  of  the  book  trade  of  Germany,  and 
of  the  industries  arising  out  of  that  trade.  The  thorough- 
ness and  productivity  of  the  people  have  brought  the  town 
successfully  through  times  when,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
those  in  power  were  ill  disposed  towards  it,  and  when  two 
efforts  were  made  to  set  aside  Stuttgart  and  to  remove  the 
royal  residence  to  Ludwigsburg,  a  hunting  castle  in 
the  beech  woods  of  the  plateau  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Neckar.  The  town  of  Stuttgart  is  now  so  large  and 
so  brilliant,  and  has  become  so  attractive  a  place  of 
abode,  that  any  suggestion  of  the  kind  is  no  longer  to  be 
apprehended.  Among  the  other  towns  of  the  Neckar,  all 
far  outstripped  by  Stuttgart,  Heilbronn  is  the  most 
flourishing  ;  and  its  trade  is  assisted  by  the  steam  navi- 
gation, coming  up  to  this  point,  and  by  the  easy  crossway 
communications  between  the  Rhine  valley  and  Franconia. 
Below    Heilbronn    the    Neckar    gathers    together    all   the 


SOUTH    AND   CENTRAL  GERMANY         247 

waters  of  the  Swabian  basin  before  entering  the  gorges  of 
the  Odenwald. 

Leaving  the  dense  settlements  of  the  Neckar  valley, 
we  have  to  cross  the  Franconian  Height,  a  sparsely 
inhabited  tableland  on  the  east,  chiefly  occupied  by 
agriculture,  before  we  come  again  to  a  large  town.  The 
landscape  round  Nuremberg  is  without  charm  ;  the  sandy 
plains  are  covered  with  Scotch  firs,  and  can  only  with 
difficulty  be  brought  under  cultivation.  To  the  mediaeval 
traffic,  however,  the  crossing  of  highways  was  favourable. 
In  its  buildings  and  art  treasures  the  old  town  still  pre- 
serves eloquent  memorials  of  its  past  history.  No  melan- 
choly elegies,  however,  finish  this  glorious  history. 
Nuremberg's  trading  inclinations  have  outlived  its  inde- 
pendence as  a  free  town  ;  it  has  grown  up  into  a  great 
modern  manufacturing  place,  though  neither  a  river  of  any 
importance  nor  a  bed  of  fossil  fuel  was  at  hand  to  afford 
sources  of  power.  In  metal-work,  in  the  manufacture  of 
blacklead,  glass,  and  wooden  ware,  Nuremberg  stands  at 
the  head  of  all  the  towns  of  South  Germany,  and  elec- 
trical works  of  world-wide  reputation  have  now  been 
established  there  in  addition  to  the  great  machine  factories. 
This  independent  evolution  of  its  own  powers  has  for  the 
second  time  brought  Nuremberg  far  ahead  of  the  epis- 
copal towns  of  Franconia  ;  the  venerable  Bamberg,  which 
lies  a  little  away  from  the  Main,  with  the  hills  of  its 
churches  and  convents  adorned  by  hop-gardens,  while 
their  feet  are  encircled  by  productive  vegetable  gardens  ; 
and  Wiirzburg,  where  the  bells  that  tinkle  for  mass  are 
answered  by  the  gay  songs  of  students  inspired  by  the 
best  wine  that  grows  on  the  banks  of  the  Main.  Bam- 
berg is  the  most  rural  of  the  middle-sized  towns  of 
Germany  ;  Wiirzburg  is  gradually  being  drawn  into  the 
net  of  industrial  competition.  While  Bamberg  is  but  one 
of  several  spots  by  which,  as  well  as  by  other  ways  more 
to  the  east,  traffic  passes  from  Franconia  to  Saxony, 
Wiirzburg  is  the  only  crossing-place  of  the  Main  for 
communication  between  Swabia  and  Thuringia.  The 
navigable  value  of  the  Main  is  diminished  by  its  puzzling 


248  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

windings,  and  by  the  small  volume  of  water  in  summer- 
time. Thus,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  to  strengthen  the 
navigation  of  the  middle  Main  above  the  Spessart,  it  serves 
for  little  at  Wurzburg,  except  for  a  considerable  flotation 
of  timber. 

Nature  has  laid  no  precious  treasure  in  the  lap  of  the 
mountains  that  encircle  the  warm  lowland  of  the  Upper 
Rhine  ;   she  has  only  crowned  their  heads 
The  Lowland     ^-^j^  forests,  the  most  beautiful  of  all  Ger- 
OF  THE  Upper  a     •  ,     ,  •  ,      1         •        ,-  ,  , 

j^jjjjjg^  many.      Amid    these    wide   hunting-nelds 

arose  mediaeval  monasteries,  which  became 
centres  of  settlements  and  of  gradual  clearances  in  the 
forest.  They  drew  their  subsistence  from  a  laborious  and 
not  very  profitable  cultivation  of  the  ground,  and  from 
the  forest,  the  trunks  of  which  were  floated  down  on  the 
swollen  tributary  streams  to  the  great  river.  It  was  the 
eighteenth  century  which  first  gave  to  the  increasing 
population  of  the  Black  Forest  those  various  industries 
which  the  nineteenth  has  brought  into  a  condition  of 
flourishing  development.  At  the  northern  end,  Pforzheim 
is  the  centre  of  a  jewellery  trade,  which  is  also  carried  on 
in  neighbouring  villages.  In  the  centre  of  the  Black 
Forest,  around  Furtwangen,  the  famous  clockmaking 
industry  flourishes.  In  the  highest  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains, about  the  Feldberg,  many  villages  are  occupied 
with  brushmaking.  In  the  valleys  of  the  Wutach  and  the 
Wiese,  which  open  to  the  south,  the  textile  trade,  espe- 
cially in  cotton,  has  made  great  way,  supported  by  water 
power,  and  encouraged  by  the  example  of  Northern 
Switzerland.  All  these  busy  places,  however,  are  oases 
of  civilisation  in  the  great  still  woodland.  The  fresh  air 
of  the  forests  breathes  up  to  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  the  thickly  peopled  western  border  of  mountains, 
where  vineyards,  orchards,  and  tobacco  plantations  stand 
on  the  loess-covered  hills,  around  rich  villages  and  busy 
townships  animated  by  trade.  This  outer  belt  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  marked  by  density  of  population  and  great 
subdivision  of  property,  is  generally  succeeded  by  a  damp 


SOUTH    AND   CENTRAL   GERMANY  249 

country,  rich  in  meadow-land,  the  waters  of  which  mostly 
run  northward,  and  are  apt  to  be  obstructed  by  accumu- 
lations of  silt,  and  so  to  form  swamps,  which  can  only 
be  reclaimed  by  care  and  attention.  Broad  plains  of 
gravel  and  considerable  woods  divide  these  damp  hollows 
— which  were  formerly  erroneously  supposed  to  be  traces 
of  an  old  easterly  course  of  the  Rhine — from  the  strip  in 
which,  before  its  regulation,  that  river  used,  like  a  capri- 
cious tyrant,  to  change  its  course  from  one  part  to 
another,  and  threaten  destruction  to  the  settlements  along 
its  banks.  A  similar  valley  formation  occurs  on  the  left 
bank  in  Upper  Alsace,  where  the  111  runs  parallel  with  the 
Rhine,  and  divides  the  woody  country  along  the  main  river 
from  the  richly  cultivated  foot  of  the  mountains. 

These  parallel  tracts  of  country,  so  essentially  different 
in  their  nature,  have  had  a  decisive  influence  not  only 
upon  the  divisions  and  the  fortunes  of  the  rural  settle- 
ments, but  also  upon  the  position  of  the  important  towns. 
The  low-lying  plain  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  with  the  kindly 
water-power  of  the  river,  and  with  the  great  roads  dividing 
at  its  northern  and  southern  ends,  offered  several  admir- 
able sites.  The  Romans  reached  the  Rhine  first  by  the 
Burgundian  gate,  and  the  first  Roman  town  upon  'the 
Rhine,  the  colony  of  Raurica,  the  predecessor  of  Basle, 
came  into  existence  in  front  of  that  opening.  Then, 
when  the  whole  Rhine  became  the  frontier  line  of  the 
Empire,  the  left  bank  was  bordered  by  the  camps  of 
"the  legions,  and  by  the  towns  that  grew  up  near  to 
them.  The  most  important  of  these  was  Mogontiacum, 
opposite  to  the  confluence  of  the  Main.  The  mouth  of 
another  Roman  way  into  the  upper  valley  of  the  Rhine 
was  marked  by  Argentoratum,  on  the  111,  the  germ  of 
Strassburg.  The  erection  of  Roman  fortresses  along  the 
Rhine  gave  to  the  left  bank  the  advantage  of  a  rather 
greater  stability  in  the  sites  of  its  chief  towns.  All  the 
smaller  towns  along  the  western  mountain  border — 
and  for  a  long  time  those  on  the  111,  too — remained 
much  inferior  to  the  three  old  foundations,  upon  the 
sites    of    which    three   great    bishoprics    grew  up   in   the 


250  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Middle  Ages.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  bar- 
barous warfare  of  Louis  XIV.  destroyed  the  towns  of 
the  Palatinate  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  especially 
Heidelberg,  which  had  arisen  at  the  point  where  the 
Neckar  emerges  from  the  mountains,  in  a  situation  similar 
to  that  of  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgau,  and  of  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main.  The  caprice  of  a  despot  next  created  the  royal 
residence  of  Carlsruhe  in  a  barren,  sandy  woodland.  As 
this  town  grew  up  after  the  days  of  the  Rhenish  Con- 
federation, so  did  Darmstadt,  the  not  much  better  situated 
capital  of  a  little  state,  both  developing  at  the  expense  of 
neighbouring  towns  of  greater  natural  importance.  On 
the  whole,  the  right  side  of  the  Upper  Valley  of  the  Rhine 
has  shown  itself  the  more  progressive  in  the  growth  of  its 
towns  in  the  nineteenth  century  ;  the  towns  of  Alsace  were 
actually  dwindling  as  long  as  they  continued  to  be  frontier 
towns  of  France,  and  Strassburg  has  only  begun  to  flourish 
once  more  since  the  whole  extent  of  the  Upper  Rhine  Valley^ 
filled  by  the  German  nation,  has  again  become  an  integral 
economic  part  of  the  German  Empire. 

The  complexities  of  town  development  that  arose  from 
the  unsteady  course  of  history  may  best  be  comprehended 
if  we  consider  the  different  sections  of  the  lowland  of  the 
Upper  Rhine  without  regard  to  the  political  boundaries  of 
the  various  groups.  One  of  the  most  suitable  situations 
for  a  town  in  all  Europe  is  occupied  by  Basle.  While  it 
was  a  member  of  the  German  Empire,  Basle  was  large 
and  flourishing.  Its  severance  (in  1501)  no  doubt  spared 
the  town  many  troubles,  but  also  set  narrowed  limits  to 
its  future  development.  The  centre  of  traffic  and  intel- 
lectual life  thus  lost  has  been  replaced  in  that  uppermost 
portion  of  the  Rhine  Valley  of  which  the  Kaiserstuhl  may 
be  considered  the  boundary,  by  towns  growing  up  in 
situations  of  less  natural  importance — Miilhausen,  on  the 
111,  and  on  the  Rhine  and  Rhone  Canal,  which  is  the  chief 
seat  of  the  cotton  trade  in  Central  Europe ;  and  Freiburg 
in  the  Breisgau,  a  university  town  standing  amid  vine- 
yards in  a  beautiful  curve  of  the  surrounding  mountains. 

The  middle  part  of  the  Upper  Rhenish  lowland  finds 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    251 

its  natural  capital  in  Strassburg.  The  French,  who  made 
every  effort  to  bind  Alsace  firmly  to  their  own  country^ 
made  Strassburg  the  terminus  of  the  two  canals  which 
connect  the  Seine  (by  way  of  the  Marne)  and  the  Rhone 
(by  way  of  the  Doubs)  with  the  Rhine,  but  all  their  en- 
deavours did  not  succeed  in  bringing  back  to  Strassburg 
its  old  prosperity.  The  old  encircling  wall,  which  sufficed 
during  the  whole  of  the  French  rule  to  embrace  the  terri- 
tory of  the  town,  has  now  fallen,  and  new  spacious  suburbs 
have  gone  beyond  it.  Far  outside  the  town  lies  the  circle 
of  new  forts,  commanding  also  the  passage  of  the  Rhine. 
That  river  itself,  which  was  so  long  only  a  barrier  to  the 
economic  development  of  the  town,  is  now  once  more  the 
medium  of  its  increasing  commercial  activity.  Strassburg 
is  making  every  effort,  by  improving  the  navigable  channel, 
to  draw  up  to  itself  a  greater  share  in  the  traffic  of  the 
Rhine.  A  great  harbour  is  being  constructed  for  its  recep- 
tion, and  this  may  perhaps  become  the  point  of  departure 
for  a  new  waterway  to  Basle.  Nor  does  intellectual  life 
fall  behind  in  this  general  movement  of  advance.  It  finds 
its  focus  in  a  university  of  high  repute. 

The  eastern  continuation  of  the  road  that  here 
touches  the  Rhine  lies  not  so  much  in  the  valley  of 
the  Kinzig — through  the  picturesque  glens  of  which 
the  Black  Forest  railway  now  runs  to  the  Lake  of 
Constance — as  northward,  where  the  line  from  Paris 
to  Vienna  passes  round  the  Black  Forest,  amid  the 
hill  country  of  Pforzheim.  It  thus  touches  the  capital 
of  Baden,  a  rank  long  lost  by  the  famous  seat  of  hot 
springs  which  gave  its  name  to  the  whole  country, 
drawing  together  the  wealthy  of  the  civilised  world  by 
a  combination  of  hill  scenery  and  luxurious  comfort ; 
a  rank  lost  also  by  Durlach,  which  stands  at  the  entrance 
to  the  best  road  into  Swabia.  In  171 5  a  Margrave 
who  was  angry  with  the  people  of  Durlach,  built  him- 
self a  new  castle  in  the  midst  of  the  fir  woods  of  the 
Rhenish  plain,  and  desired  to  make  this  castle  a  centre 
from  which  the  main  streets  of  a  new  court-town  were 
to  start.       Such  was  the  beginning  of    Carlsruhe.      The 


252  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

concentration  of  law  courts  and  government  offices,  the 
junction  of  the  railways,  and  a  connection  with  a  new 
town  on  the  Rhine,  Maxau,  succeeded  in  establishing 
a  city  here,  which  obtained  importance  as  a  centre  of 
traffic  and  manufacture.  Even  now,  however,  Carlsruhe 
falls  conspicuously  behind  Strassburg,  its  counterpart  to 
the  west  of  the  Rhine,  and  even  behind  another  town  of 
its  own  country. 

The  bareness  of  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  which  bear  no 
town  of  any  size  for  more  than  140  miles  below  Basle, 
ends  in  the  Palatinate.  The  old  and  venerable  free 
towns  of  Spires  and  Worms,  whose  cathedrals  still  recall 
their  former  glory,  have  never  recovered  from  the  de- 
struction in  which  the  barbarity  of  the  Rot  Soleil  in- 
volved them  ;  but  between  them  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Neckar,  Mannheim  has  arisen  from  its  ashes  and 
become  the  greatest  river-port  of  South  Germany.  A 
share  in  the  great  concourse  of  traffic  that  presses  into 
this  basin,  laid  out  and  furnished  with  every  appliance 
of  modern  engineering,  has  been  secured  to  the  left 
bank  of  the  river — belonging  to  Bavaria — by  the  foun- 
dation of  Ludwigshafen.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
economic  geography,  these  two  towns  form  but  one 
great  centre  of  population.  It  is  evident  that  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Rhine's  mercantile  navigation,  which  used 
to  be  at  Mayence,  has  moved  up,  with  the  improve- 
ment of  the  river,  to  Mannheim.  Here  are  delivered 
the  consignments  of  grain  from  over-sea,  of  American  and 
Russian  petroleum,  and  of  coal  from  the  Lower  Rhine, 
required  by  South  Germany  ;  while  wood  and  salt, 
which  are  floated  down  the  Neckar,  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  exports.  This  powerful  commercial  position 
is  subject  to  severe  competition,  not  only  from  Frank- 
fort and  the  growing  efforts  of  Strassburg,  but  also 
from  the  endeavours  of  the  Hanse  Towns,  which  are 
supported  by  the  State  railways,  to  attract  to  themselves 
a  part  of  the  trade  of  the  Rhine  delta.  But  transit  is 
so  rapid  and  so  easy  on  the  fine  river  that  it  keeps 
ahead  even  of  strong  competition.     Whether  it  is  possible 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    253 

to  carry  the  Rhine  trade  higher  up  the  stream  must 
still  be  proved  by  experience.  For  the  present,  the 
towns  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neckar  are  in  a  condition 
of  cheerful  advance  ;  and  any  observer  who,  amid  the 
busy  bustle  of  trade  and  manufacture  that  marks  these 
recent  centres,  misses  the  historic  charm  belonging  to 
the  other  leading  cities  of  the  Rhine,  need  only  follow 
the  Neckar  to  the  opening  of  the  mountains.  There, 
above  "  old  Heidelberg,"  frown  the  ivy-wreathed  ruins 
of  the  castle  of  the  Electors  Palatine — a  serious  and 
melancholy  warning  to  the  German  youths  who  flock 
hither  that  when  they  become  men  their  duty  is  to 
preserve  the  unity  of  their  strengthened  fatherland. 

Mayence  has  been  deposed,  in  spite  of  its  extremely 
promising  situation,  from  the  supremacy  which  it  en- 
joyed for  centuries,  and  has  retained  only  the  honour, 
often  dearly  bought,  of  being  the  protector  of  Germany's 
most  favoured  district.  But  though  Darmstadt,  in  its 
character  of  the  capital  of  a  little  state,  and  the  seat 
of  its  law  courts  and  technical  college,  is  now  increasing 
more  quickly  in  population  ;  and  though  an  artificial 
concentration  of  railway  traffic  and  growing  industrial 
activity  are  driving  away  the  dulness  that  used  to  gape 
at  the  visitor  from  the  empty  streets  of  this  court-town, 
Mayence  will  still  remain  for  some  years  to  come  the 
largest  town  in  Hesse,  and  will  continue  to  be  its  most 
important  centre  of  industrial  Hfe. 

Wiesbaden,  standing  amid  hot  springs  at  the  southern 
foot  of  the  Taunus,  and  nestling  among  the  green 
of  luxuriant  gardens,  competes  in  the  antiquity  of  its 
fame  with  Mayence.  It  is  a  large  and  luxurious  town, 
spacious  and  full  of  gay  villas,  the  favourite  rendezvous  of 
the  great  and  the  wealthy  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  the 
most  international  spot  of  hospitable  Germany.  From  it  a 
belt  of  rich  and  pleasant  country,  with  vineyards,  orchards, 
pretty  villages  and  towns,  runs  at  the  foot  of  the  Taunus 
as  far  as  Frankfort. 

The  situation  of  Frankfort,  where  in  the  Middle  Ages 
the  Germans  from  all  parts  met  for  the  election  of  their 


254  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

King,  has  won  new  importance  long  after  the  days  of  the 
Confederation  ;  indeed,  it  has  only  fully  developed  since 
a  strong  Government  arose  to  make  full  use  of  its  natural 
advantages.  The  commercial  importance  of  Frankfort, 
which  is  one  of  the  richest  towns  in  Germany,  and  has 
an  influential  stock  exchange,  is  shown  in  the  present  day 
by  the  new  docks,  and  by  the  immense  railway  station, 
which  receives  the  trafl&c  of  eight  great  lines.  Frank- 
fort had,  ever  since  very  old  times,  been  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  towns  in  Germany  ;  and  it  is  now,  by 
the  inclusion  of  great  suburbs,  also  one  of  the  largest. 
It  has  become  so  partly  owing  to  the  trading  activities 
of  "  the  Golden  International,"  who  is  particularly 
numerous  in  the  native  place  of  the  Rothschilds,  and 
partly  owing  to  its  considerable  industrial  population. 
The  latter  side  of  its  economic  life  is  served  by  the 
towns  of  Offenbach  and  Hanau,  lying  in  favoured 
spots  a  little  higher  up  the  Main,  the  one  being 
perhaps  the  first  town  in  Germany  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  fancy  leather  goods,  and  the  other  noted  for 
its  jewellery.  Thus  all  departments  of  human  life,  from 
the  most  arduous  labour  to  the  easiest  leisure,  find  their 
places  in  this  garden  of  Germany  at  the  southern  foot 
of  the  Taunus,  and  combine  to  form  a  delightful  picture 
of  peaceful  but  powerfully  protected  happiness.  Along 
the  short  river  reaches  of  the  Rhine  and  Main  between 
Offenbach  and  Biebrich  550,000  persons  are  living  upon 
230  square  miles.  The  impression  produced  by  this 
highly  favoured  district  is  doubly  strong,  because  to  the 
south  of  the  Main  it  ends  suddenly,  at  the  edge  of 
extensive  sandy  woods  of  Scotch  fir. 

The  western  outlets  of  the  Lowland  of  the  Upper 
Rhine  are  by  no  means  more  difficult  than  the  passes  of 
the  Black  Forest.  Yet  the  Vosges  and  the  mountains  of 
the  Palatinate  always  formed  a  more  effective  barrier. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  while  the  German  inhabitants  of 
Alsace,  the  Alemanni,  came  from  the  east,  Lorraine,  on 
the  contrary,  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Franks  from 
the  north.     They  found  here  so  strong  a  centre  of  Roman 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    255 

population,  that  as  soon  as  divisions  according  to  language 
began  to  arise,  the  Romanic  tongue  had  preponderance 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  Lorraine.  As  long  ago  as 
the  year  1000,  Metz  stood  in  a  French-speaking  territory. 
Even  at  that  time  the  frontier  line  of  language  ran 
between  the  French  Nied  and  the  German  Nied,  and 
crossed  the  Moselle  half  way  between  Metz  and  Thion- 
ville.  The  conquest  by  France  in  1552  of  the  three 
bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  which  belonged 
to  the  German  Empire,  brought  the  frontier  of  the 
country  into  nearer  agreement  with  the  division  of 
tongues.  It  was  not  until  the  seventeenth  century  that 
France  extended  its  conquests  far  into  German  country. 
Only  considerations  of  the  better  safeguarding  of  the 
western  frontier  against  the  French  desire  for  revenge 
induced  the  leaders  of  German  policy  in  1871  to  retain 
the  strong  position  of  Metz,  which  has  now  mainly 
become  a  German  military  town  amid  French-speaking 
villages. 

Economically,  four  tracts  of  country  are  plainly  to  be 
distinguished  in  German  Lorraine,  (i)  The  east,  up  to  the 
valley  of  the  Saar,  unites  agriculture  and  various  forms  of 
manufacture,  in  particular  a  highly  developed  glass  trade  ; 
the  little  industrial  towns  of  the  Saar  valley  enjoy  the 
advantage  of  fuel  near  at  hand,  which  is  brought  up 
cheaply  by  water ;  the  coalfields  of  the  Saar  extend  into 
Lorraine  at  Forbach.  (2)  Between  the  Saar  and  the  Moselle 
lies  a  thinly-peopled  plateau,  which,  however,  contains  the 
great  salt  bed  of  Chateau  Salins.  (3)  The  greater  warmth 
of  the  Moselle  valley  fits  it  for  the  cultivation  of  the  finer 
fruits,  although  the  vine  does  but  moderately  well ;  high 
cultivation  of  the  land  is  here  the  foundation  of  pro- 
sperity. (4)  The  plateau  to  the  west  of  the  Moselle 
is  the  iron  district  of  Lorraine,  the  productiveness  of 
which,  under  the  freer  mining  law  of  Germany,  has 
increased  tenfold  since  1871,  and  like  the  neigh- 
bouring district  of  Luxemburg,  is  taking  an  increasing 
part  in  the  manufacture  of  the  ore  into  cast  and  rolled 
iron.      In  its  extensive  iron-mining,  in  the  general  char- 


256  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

acter  of  its  landscape,  its  social  conditions,  and  the  density 
of  population  (217  to  the  square  mile),  Luxemburg  (a 
territory  of  1000  square  miles)  most  obviously  corresponds 
to  German  Lorraine. 

The   basins   of   Bohemia   and    South    Germany  allow 

their  waters,  which  run  northward,  to  escape,  after  having 

united,  by  way  of  the  narrow  outlet  valleys 

,,  ^     of  the  Elbe  and  Rhine.    These  two  are  the 

AND  Hill  ... 

Country  of         only    rivers   which    pass   through   the    full 

Central  Ger-      breadth  of  the  barrier  of  the  mountains  of 

MANY,  WITH  ITS     Central   Germany.     The    unity,  however, 

Bays  of  Low-        ^^    ^j^jg    ^^^j^    q£    mountains,    which    runs 

LAND 

across  Germany  from  the  Meuse  to  the 
Vistula,  lies  not  only  in  the  continuity  of  their  eleva- 
tions, which  is  broken  but  twice,  but  also  in  certain 
characteristic  features  common  to  the  whole  zone  of 
uplands.  Their  height,  which,  on  the  whole,  increases 
towards  the  east,  is  sufficient,  near  the  ocean  on  the 
west,  no  less  than  in  the  interior  of  the  continent  on 
the  east,  to  draw  considerable  deposits  of  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere,  so  that  the  watercourses,  which 
rise  amid  them,  receive  considerable,  though  indeed  vari- 
able, strength  and  abundance,  and  the  navigability  of  the 
rivers,  which  they  unite  to  form  in  the  plains,  is  assured. 
The  mountains  are  rich  in  timber  and  in  excellent  build- 
ing stone,  which  is  valued  in  the  diluvial  plain  that  lies 
in  front  of  the  mountains  ;  some  parts  are  rich  also  in 
ores,  and  the  northern  border  in  particular  often  contains 
great  beds  of  fossilised  fuel.  To  this  wealth  of  the  moun- 
tains acceded  the  fertility  of  the  neighbouring  plains  and 
the  liberty  of  movement.  Of  Germany's  thirty  largest 
towns,  sixteen  lie  in  the  belt  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 
This  line  of  Central  German  towns  crossing  the  Lower 
Rhine  from  Aix  to  Breslau  forms  the  heart  of  a  zone 
of  maximum  density  of  population  ;  while  another  strip 
of  thickly  peopled  country,  running  in  a  nearly  meri- 
dional direction,  follows  the  line  of  the  Rhine  from  Basle 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Ruhr.     If  we  were  to  try  and  draw 


SOUTH   AND   CENTRAL   GERMANY         257 

a  border  line,  which  could  be  but  an  arbitrary  one, 
between  the  mountain  country  of  Central  Germany  and 
the  North  German  lowland,  the  best  way  would  be  to 
follow  the  line  of  the  projected  canal  from  the  Elbe  to 
the  Rhine.  The  eastern  end  of  this  line  follows  the 
most  southerly  of  the  great  valleys  (see  p.  103),  that  one 
whose  continuation  beyond  the  Elbe  carries  us  from 
Wittenberg  along  the  Black  Elster  to  Lusatia  and  through 
the  marshes  of  Lower  Silesia  to  the  Oder  in  Middle  Silesia. 
After  that  the  border  is  marked  by  the  Malapane.  Be- 
tween this  northern  boundary,  whose  western  continuation 
runs  pretty  nearly  along  the  line  from  Homburg  to  Maes- 
tricht,  and  the  northern  boundary  of  South  Germany  (see 
p.  242),  described  above,  lies  the  central  mountain  country 
of  the  interior  of  the  German  Empire,  an  area  of  56,000 
square  miles,  with  23^  millions  of  inhabitants.  In  other 
words,  the  average  density  of  population  in  this  large 
district  exceeds  that  of  the  Upper  Rhenish  lowland,  the 
most  thickly  peopled  part  of  South  Germany.  There  are, 
of  course,  very  great  variations  of  density  in  both  regions. 

On  the  southern  border  of  the  Taunus  and  the  Huns- 

riick  grow  noble  vines,  that  testify  to  the  magical  power 

of  the  sun  by  which  the  grapes  upon  the 

,  ,     ,       .  •  .  1  J       rrs  J     The  Mountain 

black  schistose  sou  are  ripened.     Towards   /-„„„„,,  ^„ 

the  west  the  yield  of  the  vine  diminishes   the  Lower 
with   the    rise    of   the   land,   but  there,   in    Rhine,  its 
the  neighbourhood  of   the  Saar,  the  coal-   Valleys,  and 
field  of  Saarbriicken,  which  extends  into  the   the  Inlet  of 
Palatinate  and  into  Lorraine,  has  given  rise 
not  to  any  large  towns,  but  to  a  belt  of  populous  dis- 
tricts  whose  mines  supply,   not  so    much   derivative   in- 
dustries   growing   up   at  the    pit's  mouth,   as    the    needs 
of    a   wide    area    extending   into    Switzerland   and    Italy. 
The  transport  is   effected   not  entirely   by  railways,    but 
partly  by  the  little  river  Saar,  which  has  been  rendered 
navigable  by  canalisation.     The  freights  of  coal  go  almost 
exclusively  up  the  stream  to  the  Rhine  and  Marne  Canal, 
not  down  to  the  Moselle.     Treves  stands  in  a  hollow  of 


258  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  old  schistose  mountains,  just  where  the  Moselle 
begins  to  enter  the  higher  country.  Its  greatness,  how- 
ever, belongs  to  the  past,  to  the  time  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  which  regarded  the  preservation  of  the  Rhine 
frontier  as  its  most  serious  duty,  and  required  a  seat  of 
rule  behind  the  centre  of  that  frontier.  The  possession 
of  splendid  Roman  buildings  from  that  period  is  the  one 
title  of  Treves  to  fame. 

Coblenz  (Confluentes),  situated  in  the  heart  of  the 
mountains,  about  the  middle  of  the  Rhine's  picturesque 
gorge,  gains  increased  importance  from  the  fact  that,  just 
above,  the  Lahn  also  comes  to  join  the  principal  river  in 
its  fruitful  valley  basin.  While  the  valley  of  the  Rhine 
offers  to  our  admiration  not  only  its  rocky  banks,  castles, 
little  towns,  and  villages,  but  also  an  easy  and  actively 
utilised  medium  of  traffic,  nothing  but  small  loads  of 
building  stone  and  ore  are  carried  down  by  the  Lahn, 
which  travels  past  pleasant  towns  and  the  baths  of  Ems, 
whose  springs  are  the  most  famous  of  the  many  scattered 
over  the  northern  slope  of  the  Taunus.  Once  again  the 
Rhine  adorns  itself  with  all  the  charms  of  nature  and 
of  romance  before  emerging  at  Bonn  into  the  gradually 
widening  bay  of  flat  country  about  Cologne. 

The  largest  town  upon  the  Rhine  arose  at  the  junction 
of  a  western  highway  from  the  Seine,  Sambre,  and 
Meuse,  with  a  southern  way  which  continued  the  road 
from  Lyons  to  Treves  through  a  depression  of  the 
Eifel.  Cologne,  at  first  an  encampment  of  the  Romans, 
then  a  town,  became  later  on  a  royal  seat  of  the  Franks. 
The  subsequent  growth  of  Cologne  was,  however,  owing 
rather  to  the  draught  of  the  river,  which  is  here  suffi- 
cient even  for  sea-going  vessels  of  the  smaller  sort.  The 
trade  with  England,  begun  as  early  as  the  eleventh 
century,  raised  it  from  the  position  of  an  archbishopric, 
"  the  German  Rome "  filled  with  splendid  ecclesiastical 
buildings,  and  gave  it  strength  to  become  a  flourishing  free 
community.  As  the  port  of  the  German  Rhine  country, 
it  spread  the  net  of  its  communications  as  far  eastward 
as    the    lands    extended    which    had    been    colonised    by 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    259 

Germans,  and  southward  over  the  Alps  as  far  as  Milan 
and  Venice,  distributing  not  only  foreign  wares,  but  also 
the  products  of  its  own  industry,  and  especially  of  flour- 
ishing spinning,  weaving,  and  dye  works.  The  sixteenth 
century  brought  a  decay  of  the  town's  prosperity,  owing 
to  the  disturbance  of  its  communication  with  the  sea 
during  the  Dutch  war  for  freedom  and  to  the  rise  of 
the  free  Netherlands.  Impoverished  and  reduced,  it  was 
swallowed  up  by  the  French  Revolution.  Only  on  its 
inclusion  in  the  State  of  Prussia  did  the  town  awaken  to 
new  life.  The  river  front  of  the  new  and  greater  Cologne, 
which  is  six  miles  long,  has  been  completely  transformed 
by  the  construction  of  docks,  which  receive  the  rapidly 
growing  trade  and  are  in  direct  communication  with 
London  and  with  the  most  important  sea-towns  of  the 
North  and  Baltic  Seas. 

The  industrial  activity  which  fills  the  suburbs  of  Cologne 
and  the  neighbouring  independent  towns  on  the  right  bank 
— in  particular  Miihlheim — is  an  outpost  of  the  greatest 
w^orkshop  of  German  industry.  No  other  district  of  the 
same  size  in  Central  Europe  has  a  population  of  such  great 
density.  A  territory  of  1000  square  miles,  enclosed  by 
Miinchen-Gladbach,  Crefeld,  Dortmund,  Iserlohn,  Rem- 
scheid,  and  Diisseldorf,  may  easily  be  marked  out  to 
contain  nearly  3,000,000  inhabitants.  The  last  forty-live 
miles  of  the  course  of  the  Ruhr  are  cut  into  the  vast 
series  of  strata  of  a  coalfield,  and  borings  through  the 
gradually  thickening  upper  deposits  have  demonstrated 
that  these  beds  continue  northward  on  both  sides  of  the 
Emscher  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  Hamm.  Of  the  800 
square  miles  of  its  total  extent,  460  are  being  worked, 
and  employ  150,000  miners.  The  coal  obtained  serves 
the  needs  of  an  important  export  trade.  The  great 
harbours  of  Ruhrort,  Duisburg,  and  Hochfeld  deal  with 
larger  quantities  of  merchandise  (more  than  10,000,000 
Ions)  than  any  other  inland  towns  of  Europe,  the 
greater  proportion  by  far  going  up-stream.  The  Dort- 
mund and  Ems  Canal  has  recently  opened  another  out- 
let  to   the    North    Sea,  and   preparations  are  now  being 

iS 


26o  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

made  to  relieve  the  railways  of  their  vast  burden  of  coal 
by  building  a  canal  to  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe.  But 
however  great  the  increase  in  the  exportation  of  coal,  the 
chief  centre  of  its  consumption  will  still  continue  to  be 
formed  by  great  manufactures  carried  on  in  the  coalfield 
itself  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood.  The  immense 
ironworks  between  the  Ruhr  and  the  Emscher  have,  in 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  raised  a  few  small  old  towns  like 
Essen  and  Dortmund  into  cities  of  over  100,000  inhabi- 
tants and,  assisted  by  a  very  close  network  of  com- 
munications, have  made  them  centres  of  the  busy  industry 
that  prevails  in  the  numerous  lesser  towns  (Miihlheim, 
Bochum,  Witten).  The  requirements  of  so  large  a  body 
of  population  give  rise  in  turn  to  fresh  branches  of  pro- 
duction— the  extensive  brewing  trade  of  Dortmund,  for 
example.  The  statistics  of  motor-power  would  place 
the  town  of  Dortmund,  the  twenty-seventh  in  the  empire, 
in  the  second  place,  immediately  after  Berlin.  Hagen, 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Ruhr,  is  chiefly  occupied  with 
the  processes  of  preparation  of  iron  on  a  large  scale.  In 
the  basin  of  the  Lenne  fine  metal-work  is  carried  on  at 
Iserlohn  and  Altena,  where  not  only  is  iron  made  into 
wire,  needles,  and  pens,  but  there  are  also  foundries  of 
brass  and  German  silver.  The  valley  of  the  Wupper  is 
filled  with  especially  varied  occupations.  This  little  river 
makes  a  bend  towards  the  north,  and  then,  turning  south- 
ward  again,  falls  into  the  Rhine  a  little  below  Cologne, 
very  nearly  on  the  same  latitude  as  its  source.  Some 
of  its  northerly  reaches  divide  the  two  old  towns  of 
Solingen  and  Remschied,  famous  for  their  cutlery.  The 
northernmost  part  of  the  curved  valley,  however,  is  occu- 
pied by  the  long  line  of  the  twin  towns  of  Barmen 
and  Elberfeld,  for  which  their  highly  developed  textile  in- 
dustries (cotton,  wool,  and  mixed  silk  and  cotton)  have 
won  the  name  of  the  "  German  Manchester."  The  western 
continuation  of  this  valley  leads  to  the  town  of  Diisseldorf, 
on  the  Rhine,  which  serves  as  an  outlet  for  its  goods. 
Diisseldorf  has  become  the  seat  of  considerable  and  varied 
manufactures,  and  has  not  lost  the  agreeable  aspect  and 


♦ 

SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    261 

gentle  refinement  of  a  little  residence-town.  As  the  home 
of  the  Academy  of  Arts,  this  place  is  the  chief  guardian  of 
the  ideal  in  an  extensive  district  of  prosaic  utilitarianism. 
This  is  the  only  existing  example  upon  the  Rhine  of  an 
old  centre  of  population  having  passed  from  one  bank 
to  the  other.  It  is  in  a  certain  degree  the  successor  of 
Neuss,  an  old  Roman  town  (Novaesium)  on  the  left 
bank,  that  lost  its  importance  when  the  Rhine,  which 
used  to  make  a  wide  curve  to  the  left  and  so  touch  it, 
had  its  course  shortened  and  removed  to  a  distance  of 
two  miles. 

The  considerable  trade  carried  on  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Aix-la-Chapelle  depends  upon  its  own  supply  of  coal. 
In  addition  to  ironworks,  and  zino  and  lead  foundries, 
there  are  extensive  glassworks  and  a  many-sided  textile 
trade,  amid  which  an  old  established  cloth  manufacture 
preserves  its  reputation  in  a  modern  form.  How  different 
is  the  life  that  fills  this  city  to-day  from  that  which  moved 
about  its  springs  in  the  Roman  period,  or  that  which  filled 
the  imperial  palace  and  the  court  of  Charlemagne. 

Besides  Aix,  a  number  of  busy  lesser  towns  stand  on 
the  borders  of  the  Lower  Rhenish  highland.  A  short 
transition,  however,  leads  from  this  animated  region  to 
the  thinly  peopled  Eifel.  Here  are  districts  where 
hardly  a  hundred  persons  can  be  reckoned  to  the  square 
mile. 

Nature    has    not   dowered  the    mountain   country    of 

the  Weser  so  richly  as  the  lands  on  the  two  sides  of  the 

Rhine,  and  has  neither  destined  it  to  be 

the  scene  of  such  great  political  organisa-    Hesse,  the 

,,      ,      .       ,  .J  J         ,    Weser  MouN- 

tions  nor  the  basis  of  so  many-sided  and   ^.,„^   .„^ 

•'  TAINS,  AND 

important  an  economic  life.  Yet  the  heart  Westphalia. 
of  every  German  regards  this  country 
with  deep  and  well-founded  reverence.  The  abodes  of 
the  Chatti  and  the  Cherusci  form  the  original  core  of 
Germany  ;  as  far  back  as  historical  record  reaches,  they 
have  always  been  and  always  remained  German  ;  no 
other  race  has  ever  gained  a  firm  footing  here,  as  the 
Romans  and  the  French  did  on  the  Rhine,  and  the  Slavs 


262  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

on  the  Elbe.  The  Hermann  monument  in  the  Teuto- 
burger  Wald,  the  grave  of  the  German  apostle  at  Fulda, 
and  the  imperial  palace  at  Goslar  all  mark  decisive  turn- 
ing-points in  German  history. 

The  part  which  Hesse  played  in  it  was  determined 
by  the  divergence  of  the  principal  natural  roads  which 
open  a  communication  across  the  hills  between  North 
and  South  Germany,  and  also  help  to  connect  Thuringia 
with  the  Rhine  country.  The  two  Hessian  mountain 
masses,  the  Vogel  Gebirge  and  the  Hohe  Rhon,  both  of 
which  have  been  raised  to  a  considerable  elevation  by 
volcanic  flows  of  basalt,  divide  three  lines  of  valley  con- 
verging towards  the  north  :  that  of  the  Wetterau,  that  of 
Central  Hesse  and  that  of  West  Thuringia.  Through 
these  valleys  run  three  roads,  marked  out  respectively  by 
those  reaches  of  the  Upper  Lahn  which  flow  southward 
between  Marburg  and  Giessen  ;  by  the  course  of  the  Fulda ; 
and  by  the  Upper  Werra.  These  roads  come  from  points 
far  apart  in  the  valley  of  the  Main,  and  take  a  northward 
course  that  brings  them  together  on  the  Fulda  in  the 
northern  part  of  Hesse.  The  railway  from  Halle  through 
North  Thuringia  goes  directly  towards  the  west  as  far 
as  Cassel.  To  the  west  of  this  town,  however,  round 
Waldeck,  lies  an  extensive  mountainous  district.  It  is 
turned  on  the  south  by  an  important  line  of  railway, 
which  at  Giessen  branches  off  from  the  line  to  Frankfort, 
and  goes  along  the  Lahn  and  Moselle  to  Metz,  the  farthest 
point  of  the  Empire.  The  line  that  connects  this  frontier 
fortress  with  Berlin  is  crossed  at  Cassel  by  that  which  con- 
nects the  principal  towns  of  South  Germany  with  the  ports 
of  the  North  Sea.  Full  advantage  has  only  been  taken 
of  this  position  of  Cassel  as  a  junction  of  communications 
since  its  absorption  by  Prussia.  The  little  country  of 
Hesse  itself  was  too  poor  in  fertile  land  and  mineral 
wealth  to  support  a  large  town.  Forty  per  cent,  of  its 
area  is  covered  by  wood  ;  the  little  mountain  villages, 
in  whose  cottages  the  loom  is  heard  rattling,  are  sur- 
rounded by  wide  stretches  of  meadow-land  and  pasture. 
The  most  favoured  tract  of  the  whole  country  is  the  valley 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    263 

of  the  Lahn,  between  the  two  cheerful  university  towns  of 
Giessen  and  Marburg. 

The  upper  reaches  of  the  Weser  are  not  enlivened  by 
great  traffic.  Even  the  development  of  Minden  in  the 
Porta  Westphalica,  has  remained  strikingly  inferior,  not 
only  to  that  of  its  eastern  neighbours,  the  capital  towns  of 
Brunswick  and  Hanover,  but  also  of  a  place  whose  situa- 
tion is  undoubtedly  poorer,  Bielefeld,  standing  away  from 
the  river  on  the  road  between  Dortmund  and  Minden, 
and  owing  its  rise  to  its  being  the  principal  seat  of  an 
old  and  famous  linen  trade.  Like  Bielefeld,  Osnabruck 
lies  just  in  front  of  a  Teutoburgian  forest  pass,  in  the 
valley  between  these  mountains  and  the  parallel  chain  of 
the  Wiehen  Gebirge,  lying  opposite  on  the  north-east  ;  it 
has  grown  equally  great  owing  to  its  many  different 
branches  of  manufacture,  which  are  supported  by  the 
neighbouring  coalfields.  Osnabruck  is  traversed  by  the 
road  which  passes  easily  through  the  end  of  the  Weser 
Mountains  from  Bremen  south-westward  to  the  Miinster- 
land.  The  capital  of  the  "  Red  Earth  "  has  gained  new 
prospects  since  it  was  touched  by  the  canal  from  Dort- 
mund to  the  Ems. 

Eastward  of  the  Weser,  in  Schaumburg-Lippe  and 
the  province  of  Hanover,  a  belt  of  hill  ranges  rising 
directly  from  the  lowland,  the  Biickeberg,  the  Deister, 
and  the  Osterwald,  furnish  abundant  deposits  of  ex- 
cellent coal.  This  is  the  chief  source  of  strength  for  the 
great  trade  of  Hanover,  and  gives  wings  to  the  traffic 
along  a  star  of  railway  lines  converging  at  this  convenient 
spot.  Hanover  long  remained  a  little  town.  It  only 
began  to  increase  when  it  became  the  capital  of  a 
secondary  State.  It  was  not,  however,  one  of  the  royal 
residences  that  owe  their  existence  to  foolish  caprice, 
and  are  fostered  unnaturally  at  the  expense  of  places  in 
better  positions.  The  eye  of  Henry  the  Lion  chose 
this  situation  for  a  town  with  insight  indeed,  but  also 
with  good  luck,  for  many  of  its  characteristics  did  not  be- 
come valuable  until  the  nineteenth  century.  The  name 
(Honovere)   expresses   the  advantage  of  the   high    banks 


264  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

between  which  the  Leine  here  flows.  At  a  distance 
of  fifteen  miles  from  the  border  of  the  mountains  it 
cuts  for  the  last  time  through  an  island  of  solid  rock 
which  rises  out  of  the  loose  diluvial  ground,  emits  salt 
springs,  and  hides  in  its  depths  a  bed  of  asphalt.  The 
persistently  meridional  direction  of  the  valley  of  the 
Leine  was  adapted  to  carry  a  main  road  running  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Hartz  Mountains  and  connecting  the 
northern  lowland  with  Thuringia  and  South  Germany. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  railway  period  that 
Hanover  became  the  terminus  of  this  road,  and  the 
crossing-place  of  the  line  from  Cologne  to  Berlin  with  the 
line  running  north  and  south.  The  lively  development 
of  its  traffic,  and  closely  allied  with  that,  the  rise  of  its 
manufactures  since  the  opening  up  of  the  neighbouring 
coalfields,  have  made  Hanover — if  Linden,  which  lies 
opposite  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Leine,  be  reckoned  with  it 
as  one  centre  of  population — the  fourth  town  in  the  king- 
dom of  Prussia  and  the  eighth  in  the  Empire.  It  competes 
on  about  equal  terms  with  Magdeburg,  the  point  of  de- 
parture for  the  eastern  circuit  of  the  Hartz  Mountains,  and 
has  far  outstripped  Brunswick,  which  lying  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  chain  at  one  time  succeeded  in  drawing 
to  itself  the  traffic  from  both  sides  of  the  mountains. 

This  westward  displacement  of  the  inland  centre  of 
trade  between  the  Elbe  and  Weser  is  in  part — though 
many  other  causes  contribute  to  it — a  reflection  of  the 
change  that  has  made  Hamburg  instead  of  Liibeck  the 
chief  trading  seaport.  Brunswick's  flourishing  period 
was  the  epoch  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  It  shared  with 
Danzig,  Liibeck,  and  Cologne  the  honour  of  being  a 
capital  of  one  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  League.  The 
decay  of  German  commercial  supremacy  in  the  Baltic 
and  the  rise  of  the  Netherlands  put  an  end  to  the 
prosperous  days  of  Brunswick.  The  principal  founda- 
tions of  its  present  more  modest  prosperity  are  the  high 
culture  of  its  fertile  territory,  the  development  of  the 
sugar  trade,  and  the  opening  up  of  its  mineral  treasures, 
which  consist  of  salt,  alkalies,  and  lignite. 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    265 

The  development  of  the  chief  towns  in  the  northern 
foreland  of  the  Hartz  Mountains  shows  clearly  how  the 
main  road  and  the  centres  of  life  were  gradually  shifted 
northward  into  the  more  open  country.  The  oldest  line 
of  communication  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  kept  nearer  to 
the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  has  there  left  behind  it 
towns  in  Hildesheim  and  Goslar,  which  in  the  antiquity  of 
their  memories,  the  character  of  their  buildings,  and  the 
arrest  of  their  development,  contrast  with  the  great  centres 
of  the  foreland,  in  the  same  way  as  Halberstadt  and 
Quedlinburg,  in  the  neighbouring  district  on  the  east, 
contrast  with  the  metropolis  of  the  Middle  Elbe,  by  which 
they  are  overshadowed. 

The  Elbe,  which  the  Romans  would  like  to  have  made 

the  western  boundary  of  free  Germany,  long  remained, 

in   later  days,   its   eastern  boundary.     No 

part  of  its  course  was  more  important  at       The  District 

the  time  when  the  Altmark  and  the  ad-       ?!"  ™^   ^ 
.   .   .  4.     r   TT  4.-U  ■      4.U  Middle  Elbe 

joining  part  of  Hanover  were  still  in  the       (Thuringia 

hands    of    the    Slavs  than  the  solid    high       and  Saxony). 

bank  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  Middle 

Elbe    at   the   point  where  it  flows  farthest  to  the   west, 

between   the  embouchure  of  the   Saale   and   that  of  the 

Ohre.      Here,    as    early    as    the    days    of    Charlemagne, 

arose     Magdeburg,     at     first     an     extreme     outpost     of 

Germany.       Later  on   it  became  a  valuable  support  for 

colonisation   to   the  east,   a   market  for  the  trade  of  the 

Lower    Rhenish    manufacturing  towns,    and    a    powerful 

inland   member   of   the    Hanseatic    League.     The   results 

of  this   long   and    strong  development    were    annihilated 

by  the   destruction   of   the    town    in    1631.     Magdeburg 

revived  as  a  fortress  of  Brandenburg.     The  bridge-head 

of  the   rising    North  German  power    now  looked  to  the 

west.     Renewed  prosperity  only  came  with  the  nineteenth 

century.      With   the   intensified   cultivation   of   its   fertile 

plain,  favoured  by  the  discovery  of  the  alkalis  at  Stassfurt, 

Magdeburg   became   a  great   manufacturing   and   trading 

place,  which  received  colonial  produce,  coal,  and  petroleum 


266  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

coming  up  the  river,  and  sent  down  in  exchange  large 
loads  of  salt,  manures,  chemicals,  and  sugar.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  town  outgrew  the  old  belt  of  fortifications 
and  created  great  suburbs  beyond,  which  were  only  really 
incorporated  with  the  original  centre  after  the  fall  of 
the  old  defences.  While  the  railway  communications  of 
Magdeburg,  which  has  direct  connection  with  five  sea- 
ports, are  not  capable  of  further  improvement,  the  water 
communications  of  the  town  will  be  largely  extended  when 
a  canal  opens  a  way  to  the  Weser  and  the  Rhine.  Even 
now  the  great  water  traffic  suggests  that  Magdeburg,  with 
its  magnificent  river,  holds  the  most  advantageous  place  in 
the  heart  of  North  Germany  in  regard  to  the  transport  of 
goods. 

The  basin  of  the  Saale  offers  an  interesting  spectacle 
in  the  rivalry  of  two  neighbouring  cities,  Halle  and 
Leipzig,  lying  in  the  same  hollow  of  the  lowland,  which 
enters  between  the  heights  of  Thuringia  and  the  foreland 
of  the  Erz  Gebirge  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  both  towns 
equally  eligible  starting-points  for  communication  with 
South  Germany  and  with  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  Here, 
along  the  Saale  and  the  Elster,  roads  branch  off  to 
Bohemia,  Franconia,  and  Hesse,  the  lines  of  all  of  them 
being  clearly  marked  by  openings  in  the  mountains  which 
allow  them  passage.  As  is  well  known,  the  crossing-place 
of  these  roads  became  conspicuous  in  military  history  on 
account  of  the  number  of  battles  fought  there — 1631, 
1634,  1757,  1813.  These  were  not  only  great  in  them- 
selves, but  also,  owing  to  the  locality,  particularly  decisive. 
The  plain  in  the  hollow  of  Leipzig  is  the  most  memorable 
field  of  battles  on  German  soil. 

Halle,  in  spite  of  the  great  charms  and  advantages  of 
its  situation,  the  fame  of  its  university  and  the  growth  of 
manufactures,  has  not  become  a  great  city  of  the  first 
rank,  but  has  been  distinctly  outstripped  by  Leipzig, 
which  lies  twenty  miles  to  the  south-east.  This  is  princi- 
pally due  to  accidental  historical  circumstances.  One 
of  the  chief  of  these  was  the  dependence  of  Halle  upon 
the  archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  which  was  only  tempo- 


SOUTH   AND   CENTRAL   GERMANY  267 

rarily  lessened  by  its  inclusion  in  the  Hanseatic  League, 
and  another  was  the  care  bestowed  on  Leipzig  by  the 
enlightened  Electors  of  Saxony.  To  these  it  was 
mainly  owing  that  the  Elster  basin  was  enabled  to 
emancipate  itself  from  the  absorbing  power  of  the  Saale 
capital,  and  to  develop  a  still  larger  centre  of  population 
of  its  own.  It  is  true  that,  compared  with  Halle,  which 
rises  on  the  north-western  border  of  the  lowland  bay  and 
close  to  the  Mansfeld  Hills,  Leipzig  has  the  advantage  of 
standing  more  in  the  open  centre  of  this  bay,  and  also  a 
little  more  to  the  south,  so  that  it  comes  exactly  into  the 
continuation  of  the  Thuringian  main  road  from  Erfurt 
to  Naumburg,  while  Halle  lies  rather  to  the  north,  and 
so  off  the  naturally  marked  cross-ways.  The  site  of 
Leipzig,  however,  was  by  no  means  particularly  favour- 
able ;  it  was  originally  the  marshy  strip  of  valley  in 
which  the  Elster  changed  its  course  from  a  northerly  to 
a  westerly  direction  before  falling  into  the  Saale,  and, 
being  joined  by  other  tributaries,  particularly  the  Pleisse, 
twined  itself  into  a  network  of  continually  changing  water- 
courses. The  town  rises  out  of  this  low  valley  on  an 
alluvial  plain  to  the  east,  and  a  wide  ring  of  great  suburbs 
have  arisen  in  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and 
have  been  incorporated  within  the  last  few  years.  Leipzig 
— the  Linden  town  of  the  Wends,  and  now  the  fourth  city 
of  Germany — is  a  much  newer  place  than  Halle.  Not 
until  the  thirteenth  century  did  it  begin  to  develop  into  a 
centre  of  trade,  supported  by  valuable  privileges.  The 
year  1268  may  be  reckoned  as  the  year  in  which  Leipzig 
Fair  was  born.  The  foundation  of  the  university,  too, 
one  of  the  oldest  in  Germany,  in  1407,  contributed 
largely  to  the  advancement  of  the  town,  and  prepared  its 
reputation  as  a  mart  of  learned  productions,  printing,  and 
bookselling.  The  storms  of  war,  indeed,  exposed  the 
prosperity  of  Leipzig  to  severe  and  repeated  trials  ;  but 
the  promptitude  and  energy  of  spirit  developed  in  the 
citizens  by  the  protection  of  their  trade  privileges  sur- 
mounted all  such  ordeals,  and  also  prevented  the  efforts 
of  Prussia  to  raise  Halle  at  the  expense  of  Leipzig  from 


268  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

being  entirely  successful.  In  the  course  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  old  trade  privileges  of  Leipzig  have 
gradually  become  worthless,  and  the  increase  of  general 
communication  in  the  railway  period  has  diminished  the 
importance  of  its  Fair. 

Thuringia,  the  country  from  the  Hartz  Mountains  to 
the  Thuringian  Forest,  comprises  tracts  of  very  dis- 
similar characters.  The  northern  border  is  formed  by 
mountains  rich  in  minerals  and  occupied  by  old  established 
mines — the  Upper  Hartz,  amid  whose  thick  woodlands 
for  many  centuries  little  mining  towns  were  at  work 
<^iggi"g  deep  into  the  veins  of  silver;  the  Lower  Hartz 
with  great  deposits  of  iron  ore  ;  and  the  bare  hill  country 
about  Mansfeld,  which  is  the  greatest  seat  of  copper- 
mining  in  Germany,  and  has  besides  considerable  wealth 
of  silver.  At  the  southern  foot  of  the  Hartz  Mountains 
runs  a  fertile  dip  of  land,  the  "  Goldene  Aue,"  through 
which  passes  an  important  line  of  communication  be- 
tween Halle  and  Gottingen,  a  town  whose  importance  is 
older  than  its  famous  university.  Nordhausen,  the 
principal  place  of  the  Goldene  Aue,  sends  out,  along 
this  busy  road,  not  only  the  products  of  the  fruitful 
country,  but  also  the  linen  made  by  the  poor  weavers 
of  Eichsfeld.  Beyond,  to  the  south  of  Nordhausen, 
begins  the  extensive  shell-limestone  plateau  of  Thuringia, 
a  country  poorly  watered,  with  few  trees  and  not  very 
fertile.  Its  thinly  peopled  area  is  interrupted,  however,  by 
tracts  of  busier  life,  some  due  to  little  fruitful  basins  in 
which  the  limestone  is  covered  by  more  recent  deposits, 
and  some  to  the  main  Thuringian  highway,  which 
accompanies  the  Werra  on  its  passage  across  the  thres- 
hold of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  passes  down,  by  Eisenach 
and  Gotha,  to  the  basin  of  Erfurt,  reaches  the  valley  of 
the  Ilm  at  Weimar,  and  following  the  direct  continua- 
tion of  it  along  the  Saale,  comes  eventually  to  the  edge 
of  the  lowland  at  Naumburg.  The  political  sub-divi- 
sion of  Thuringia  has  given  birth  to  a  number  of  very 
agreeable  moderate-sized  towns  along  this  highway,  two 
of    which    have    secured    an    honourable    place    in    the 


SOUTH   AND   CENTRAL   GERMANY  269 

intellectual  life  of  Germany — Weimar,  as  having  been  a 
fostering  home  of  German  literature,  and  Gotha,  as  being 
the  seat  of  a  renowned  geographical  institution.  In  the 
course  of  this  rivalry  no  really  large  city  has  been  de- 
veloped. Erfurt  comes  nearest  to  being  this  ;  the  ex- 
tremely fertile  basin  in  which  it  lies  and  the  mildness 
of  the  climate  have  made  it  a  centre  of  prosperous 
market -gardening,  while  in  this  same  basin  the  road 
from  Gottingen,  which  continues  the  course  of  the  Leine 
valley  over  the  threshold  of  the  Eichsfeld,  joins  the  main 
Thuringian  highroad.  On  the  south  of  this  important 
artery  of  traffic,  the  flat  shell-limestone  formation  extends 
monotonously  again  at  the  foot  of  the  Thuringian  Forest, 
but  is  deeply  furrowed  by  the  valley  of  the  Saale.  The 
name  of  Jena  recalls  the  rural  charm  of  the  Thuringian 
university  belonging  to  the  comfortable  little  town  with 
its  picturesque  framework  of  hills ;  but  it  recalls  also  the 
serious  historic  importance  of  the  thoroughfares  which 
come  this  way  from  the  Main,  round  the  southern 
end  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  strike  the  valley  of 
the  Saale.  Above  Saalfeld  the  valley  becomes  difficult, 
narrow,  tortuous,  and  deeply  cut  into  the  highland  of  the 
Franconian  Forest.  This  highland  may  be  regarded,  both 
because  of  its  extremely  wooded  character  and  because  of 
the  industrial  activity  of  its  inhabitants,  as  belonging  prac- 
tically to  the  same  district  as  the  Thuringian  Forest. 

Advancing  northward  from  the  slate  quarries  of  Lehe- 
sten  to  the  higher  mountains,  we  first  pass  the  circle  of 
Sonneberg,  where  thirty  places  are  engaged,  on  a  system 
of  minute  division  of  labour,  in  preparing  toys  made  of 
metal,  stone,  china,  glass,  wood,  and  papier-mach6,  for  the 
markets  of  the  world.  Millions  of  dolls  set  out  on  their 
travels  every  year  from  these  parts.  A  little  to  the  north, 
glassworks  are  spread  over  both  slopes  of  the  range ;  one 
place  manufactures  nothing  but  glass  tubes  for  thermo- 
meters, and  another  great  establishment  nothing  but  glass 
eyes  of  the  most  deceptive  perfection.  The  eastern  slope 
of  the  mountains,  and  in  particular  the  valleys  of  the 
Schwarza,  Ilm,  and  Gera,  are  the  principal  headquarters 


270  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

of  the  great  porcelain  trade  of  the  Thuringian  Forest. 
On  a  more  northerly  section  of  the  same  slope  the  people 
work  in  majolica  and  terra-cotta.  The  northern  part  of 
the  western  slope,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  iron  and 
steel  manufactures  of  old-established  repute,  the  largest 
manufactories  of  arms  in  Germany,  and  an  unsurpassed 
manufacture  of  hardware..  Ruhla,  at  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  mountains,  works  meerschaum  and  amber, 
and  carves  pipes. 

The  Thuringian  range  is  by  no  means  a  powerful 
barrier,  indeed  most  of  the  minor  States  extend  across 
the  mountains.  The  cheerful  capital  of  Saxe-AIeiningen 
and  most  of  its  domains  lie  on  the  western  slope  in  the 
valley  of  the  Upper  Werra,  and  Coburg,  whose  pic- 
turesque castle  overlooks  the  tributary  valley  of  the  Main, 
belongs  to  Saxe-Gotha. 

By  way  of  compensation,  the  north-eastern  corner 
of  Bavaria  reaches  across  the  steep  slope  of  the  P'ran- 
conian  Forest  into  the  district  of  the  Upper  Saale, 
which  has  Hof  for  its  centre  of  traffic.  This  is  the 
beginning  of  the  Vogtland,  the  highland  that  falls  away  in 
soft  gradations  towards  the  north  on  both  sides  of  the 
Elster.  It  is  a  tract  of  land  rich  in  line  meadows,  rather 
too  high  for  intense  cultivation,  and  favourable  to  the 
growth  only  of  potatoes  and  rye.  Mineral  treasure  of 
its  own  it  has  none.  The  coalfield,  however,  in  the 
basin  of  Zwickau  also  furnishes  the  great  textile  industry 
of  Vogtland,  and  has  enabled  it  to  expand  a  small  home 
industry  into  a  large  one  concentrated  in  considerable 
towns.  Spinning  and  weaving,  both  of  wool  and  cotton, 
as  well  as  lacemaking  and  embroidery,  are  carried  on  in 
the  towns  of  the  Vogtland,  and  also  in  Gera  and  Greiz,  tb.e 
capitals  of  the  two  duchies  of  Reuss,  but  more  particularly 
at  Plauen,  which  gains  an  increase  of  activity  from  its 
position  at  the  cross-roads  from  Leipzig  to  Eger,  and  from 
Dresden  to  Bamberg. 

The  mainstay  of  Saxon  mining  and  manufacture  is 
the  coal-bed  between  Zwickau  and  Chemnitz,  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the   Erz  Gebirge.      Mining  operations, 


SOUTH    AND   CENTRAL   GERMANY  271 

which  have  to  penetrate  a  thick  covering  of  recent  rock 
to  reach  the  coal,  are  here  busied  with  two  coalfields  :  one 
at  Zwickau,  which  is  the  heart  of  a  crowd  of  manufactur- 
ing villages,  and  a  second,  farther  to  the  east,  at  Oelsnitz 
and  Lugau.  A  little  north-east  of  these  floats  the  smoky 
flag  of  Chemnitz,  in  the  network  of  whose  sooty  streets 
dwells  that  closely  packed  army  of  workers  which  keeps 
busy  the  workshops  where  machines  are  built,  cotton 
spun,  coloured  goods  woven,  and  hosiery  made.  The 
textile  trade,  which  preponderates  in  this  principal  town 
of  the  district,  has  other  favoured  homes  to  the  north 
of  Zwickau  at  Glauchau,  Meerane,  Crimmitschau,  and 
Werdau.  An  area  of  555  square  miles  is  inhabited  by 
860,000  persons,  and  even  in  a  much  wider  circle  the 
vivifying  influence  is  perceptible  of  that  source  of  vital 
power  which  human  industry  here  draws  from  the  bosom 
of  the  earth.  Urban  settlements,  however,  rise  from  the 
longitude  of  Chemnitz  to  the  highest  summits  of  the  Erz 
Gebirge  ;  Annaberg  flourishes  at  a  height  of  about  2000 
feet  ;  and  the  highest  townlet  in  the  German  Empire, 
Ober-Wiesenthal,  has  an  altitude  of  about  3000  feet.  The 
explanation  of  this  density  of  population  in  a  rough  un- 
fruitful highland  lies  not  in  the  far-reaching  influence  of 
the  coalfield  on  the  border  of  the  mountains,  but  in  the 
after-results  of  the  tin-mining  and  silver- mining  which 
flourished  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  attracted  a  great 
body  of  colonists  to  the  Erz  Gebirge  who  thinned  its 
woods  and  penetrated  to  the  very  top  of  its  ridge.  When 
the  mines  were  exhausted,  the  population  that  had 
gathered  and  multiplied  applied  itself  to  other  branches  of 
industry.  Bobbin  lace,  passementerie,  and  many  depart- 
ments of  woodwork  provide  subsistence  for  the  inhabitants 
of  spots  so  high  up  that  agriculture  ceases  to  be  possible. 
Few  places  in  this  whole  belt  of  mountains,  which  was 
once  famous  for  its  mineral  wealth,  now  carry  on  mining, 
the  chief  of  them  being  Freiberg,  the  seat  of  a  renowned 
mining  academy.  Many  ships  are  still  loaded  at  Pirna 
with  the  excellent  building  stone  of  the  neighbouring 
sandstone    quarries,    and    Meissen,    once    the    important 


272  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

focus  of  German  colonisation,  is  still  famous  for  its 
porcelain  manufacture.  But  both  towns  have  had  to 
yield  their  leading  positions  to  Dresden,  which  has  arisen 
between  them,  and  was  selected  by  the  rulers  of  the 
country  for  its  capital.  Dresden  is  primarily  a  royal 
residence,  and  as  such  singularly  well  chosen.  The  ad- 
jacent mountains  not  only  form  an  agreeable  conclusion 
to  the  delightful  valley  prospect,  with  its  framework 
of  pleasant  hills,  gardens,  and  country-houses,  but  also 
supply  a  splendid  building  stone  for  those  monumental 
edifices  which  are  erected  not  only  by  the  ostentation 
of  vain  despots,  but  also  by  the  enlightened  work  of  an 
age  that  requires  ample  facilities  for  communication.  The 
beauty  of  the  situation,  the  architecture  with  its  mingling 
of  coquetry  and  dignity,  the  many  art  collections  made 
by  the  fine  taste  of  its  rulers,  combine  to  make  Dresden 
attractive  not  only  to  travellers,  but  also  to  wealthy  people 
who  desire  a  quiet  and  agreeable  life  and  who  settle  here 
permanently.  But  beside  the  Dresden  of  the  court,  and 
the  Dresden  of  the  stranger  who  seeks  his  ease,  a 
Dresden  of  industry  is  growing  up,  with  a  ring  of 
suburbs  and  outlying  districts.  It  is  true,  however,  that 
many  branches  of  Dresden's  industry  owe  their  origin  to 
the  brilliance,  the  good  taste,  and  the  pleasantness  that 
belong  to  a  cheerful  royal  residence  and  a  favourite 
meeting-place  of  wealthy  foreigners. 

When  the  express  train  has  flown  past  the  last 
country-houses  of  Dresden  and  dives  into  the  sandy 
wastes  and  fir  plantations  of  the  Dresden 
^^riii'Estr'^  Heath,  it  seems  to  the  traveller  as  if  a 
curtain  fell  and  shut  off  the  rich  life 
of  West  Germany.  We  come  into  the  comparative 
poverty  of  the  east,  into  districts  more  recently  civilised 
and  less  completely  Germanised.  The  traveller  from  the 
west  is  reminded  that  this  is  so  by  the  chance  words  of 
Wendish  that  fall  upon  his  ear  in  the  station  of  Bautzen. 
The  mere  persistence  of  this  island  of  Wendish  speech  is 
enough  to  show  how  quietly  this  country  on  both  sides 
of  the  Spree  has  for  centuries  lived. 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  GERMANY    273 

Gorlitz,  the  capital  of  Lusatia,  at  the  crossing  of  im- 
portant lines  of  communication,  fringes  the  banks  of 
the  Neisse  valley,  cut  deeply  into  the  granite  block  at 
the  base  of  the  basalt  column  of  the  Landeskrone.  In 
spite  of  the  administrative  division  the  feeling  of  the 
people  still  regards  Lusatia  as  an  independent  entity. 
Silesia  proper  does  not  begin  until  the  other  side  of  the 
Quels. 

This  province  of  the  Prussian  State  pushes  itself  like 
a  peninsula  between  Bohemia  and  Poland.  The  presence 
of  foreign  tariff  frontiers  on  each  side  hinders  the  full 
development  of  many  departments  of  its  progressive 
economic  life,  and  gives  additional  value  to  that  improve- 
ment of  the  Oder  which  has  in  the  last  few  decades  made 
it  a  waterway  of  considerable  value,  and  rendered  com- 
munication possible  with  the  centre  of  the  State  and  with 
the  distant  seas.  The  mountains,  rich  in  wood,  but  with 
no  great  store  of  minerals,  are  the  seat  of  industries  that 
are  assisted  by  the  motive  power  of  the  mountain  streams, 
an  assistance  the  value  of  which  will  continue  to  be 
extremely  variable  so  long  as  reservoirs  do  not  exist  and 
assure  a  more  constant  water  supply.  Glass  furnaces, 
sawmills,  and  wood-pulp  factories  are  eating  up  the 
woods.  Hand-weaving  maintains  a  precarious  existence 
in  the  poor  mountains.  But  the  transference  of  the  whole 
textile  industry  to  machines  and  to  large  manufactories  is 
irresistibly  completing  itself.  Its  development  follows  the 
attraction  of  the  coalfield  of  Waldenburg,  which  has  caused 
densely  inhabited  villages  and  bustling  work  places  to  press 
in  between  steep  wooded  mountains.  Small  industrial 
towns  at  the  more  important  passes  and  in  the  little  hollows 
among  the  mountains  form  centres  for  the  general  life  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  main  lines  of  communication,  how- 
ever, have  from  ancient  times  kept  to  the  outer  border  of 
the  chain,  reaching  the  fertile  middle  Silesian  plain,  at 
Liegnitz,  and  the  Oder  at  Breslau.  The  old  capital  of 
Silesia  rises  here  in  the  centre  of  a  plain  which  is  very 
highly  cultivated,  and  is  the  great  eastern  centre  of  beet- 
growing    and    sugar-making.       The    town    stands   at    the 


274 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


junction  of  roads  through  the  mountains,  the  line  of 
which  is  fixed  by  the  passes,  and  of  roads  in  the  plain, 
which  are  guided  to  this  point  by  the  course  of  the 
Oder  and  some  of  its  tributaries.  In  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  Breslau  lay  on  the  extreme  border 
of  European  civilisation.  In  its  markets  convoys  of 
goods  from  the  Netherlands  and  South  Germany  met 
those  from  Hungary,  Poland,  and  Prussia.  The  mer- 
chants of  the  city  carried  the  products  of  the  west  and  of 
their  own  industry  far  out  into  Eastern  Europe,  and  on 
the  other  hand  were  in  direct  communication  with  Venice 
and  Bruges.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  independent 
development  of  Poland  lessened  the  value  of  the  old  trade 
privileges  which  had  combined  with  its  position  to  give 
Breslau  so  leading  a  place  in  European  commerce.  The 
later  advance  of  the  town,  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
rested  upon  other  grounds.  Breslau  was  now  the  centre 
of  commercial  life  in  a  large  and  productive  province,  the 
railway  lines  of  which  converged  upon  it.  The  fact  that 
the  river  was  not  navigable  for  large  vessels  above  Breslau 
made  this  the  haven  of  the  province,  and  favoured  the 
development  of  busy  manufacture  as  well  as  the  agglome- 
ration of  population.  Latterly,  however,  as  the  means  of 
communication  increased,  the  province  began  to  depend 
less  and  less  upon  the  centre.  The  canalisation  of  the 
river  upwards  to  Kosel  has  made  that  the  shipping-place 
of  Upper  Silesia,  while  the  telegraph  and  telephone  bring 
the  industry  of  the  province  into  direct  relation  with  the 
centre  of  the  Empire. 

An  extensive  wooded  territory  close  to  the  frontier 
of  the  Empire,  which  was  formerly  divided  amou;^  a  few 
large  landowners,  and  had  in  the  eighteenth  century  but  a 
rare  and  poor  population  living  in  wretched  villages  and 
small  towns,  has  become — since  the  opening  of  a  coal- 
bed  which  surpasses  in  richness  even  that  of  Westphalia 
— the  theatre  of  immense  manufactures,  which,  having  at 
command  the  unusual  combination  of  coal,  iron,  zinc,  and 
lead,  have  sprung  up  quickly  and  in  great  variety.  More 
zinc  is  obtained  here  than  anywhere  else  in  Europe.     The 


SOUTH   AND   CENTRAL  GERMANY  275 

local  supply  of  iron,  which  is  not  of  great  value,  does  not 
suffice  for  the  iron  trade,  but  the  low  price  of  coal  makes 
it  possible  to  bring  better  ore  from  far  away,  in  spite  of 
the  distance  from  great  markets  and  great  waterways, 
which  is  disadvantageous  alike  to  importation  and  to  ex- 
portation. The  gathering  together  of  forges  round  the 
coal-pits  has  caused  a  great  increase  of  population,  and 
has  created  industrial  towns  like  Konigshiitte  in  the 
course  of  some  twenty  or  thirty  years.  In  a  triangle 
between  Tarnowitz,  Myslowitz,  and  Gleiwitz  there  are 
659,000  persons  dwelling  in  a  territory  of  232  square 
miles.  The  streams  of  the  country-side  have  run  away 
into  the  pits  of  the  mines,  where  the  water  gets  mixed 
with  acids  and  becomes  unfit  for  use,  so  that  the  vast 
population  is  supplied  with  water  by  a  great  system  of 
artificial  channels  from  the  springs  in  the  neighbouring 
chain  of  heights  to  the  north.  Close  by  this  busy  ant- 
hill of  workers  lie  wide  expanses  of  woodland — the  coal- 
beds  of  future  mines — divided  into  the  preserves  of  great 
landlords. 

Note  on  AuthoHties. — Germany  is  a  great  field  of  experiment  for  the 
methods  of  comparative  geography. 

While  the  brilliant  work,  Bavaria  (five  parts  in  nine  volumes),  1862— 
68  ;  Das  Konigreich  Wiirtemberg  (3  vols.),  1882-86  ;  Das  Grossherzog- 
thujn  Baden,  1885  ;  and  Das  Reichland  Elsass-Lothringen  {\n  progress 
since  1 894)  have  been  produced  by  the  co-operation  of  many  learned  men 
working  upon  a  large  scheme,  individual  geographers  have  written  single- 
handed  books;  W.  Gotz  upon  Bavaria  (1895-1901),  Fritz  Kegel  upon 
Thuringia  (3  vols.,  1892-96),  and  J.  Partsch  upon  Silesia,  1896-1903. 

A  variety  of  details  m.ay  be  found  in  the  Forschungen  'zur  Deutschen 
Landes-und-  Volkskunde,  set  on  foot  by  R.  Lehmann  in  1 886  and  published 
since  1888  by  A,  Kirchhoff.  Up  to  the  present  time  14  volumes  have 
appeared. 


19 


CHAPTER      XVII 

NORTH     GERMANY 

As  we  leave  the  mountains  and  hills,  the  character  of  the 
landscape  becomes  more  monotonous.  The  richly 
ornamented  cathedrals  of  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine 
give  place  to  the  sober  brick  fa9ades  of  public  buildings 
in  North  German  towns  of  the  open  lowland,  and  the 
paving  of  the  lesser  country  towns,  even  at  the  present 
day,  exhibits  the  "  cats'  heads  "  (cobble  stones)  belonging 
to  the  rounded  diluvial  rubble,  which  were  at  one  time 
the  only  material  available  for  making  solid  causeways, 
even  in  large  towns.  To  the  agriculturist,  too,  this  wide 
loose  plain  seldom  offers  fertile  loams,  with  their 
abundant  supply  of  nourishment,  or  rich  marshlands  ; 
sterile  sand  and  heaths  that  defy  cultivation  generally 
prevail. 

The  land  for  which  the  German  colonists,  always 
pushing  forward,  struggled  so  manfully,  first  with  the  older 
inhabitants,  and  then  with  its  own  unkindly  nature,  was 
poor,  and  in  its  original  condition  of  wilderness  even 
repellent  ;  but  it  has  been  made,  not  indeed  into  a 
paradise,  but  into  a  dwelling-place  that  responds  not  un- 
gratefully to  the  strenuous  labour  of  an  endeavouring 
people.  There  are  considerable  expanses  only  fit  to 
grow  trees,  with  which,  indeed,  large  connected  tracts  on 
the  east  of  the  Elbe  and  others  in  the  Altmark  are 
covered,  but  as  we  approach  the  North  Sea  the  woods 
grow  thinner  and  thinner,  and  their  place  is  taken  by 
barren  heaths  and  marshes.  The  existence  of  these 
almost  uninhabited  districts  must  of  itself  reduce  the 
average  density  of  population.  This  is  much  lower 
than  that  already  given  for  the    districts  lying  along  the 

876 


NORTH    GERMANY  277 

mountains  of  Mid-Germany,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
the  two  greatest  centres  of  population  in  the  Empire  throw 
their  weight  into  this  scale.  In  Berlin-Charlottenburg, 
with  the  thickly  peopled  environs,  and  in  Hamburg-Altona 
are  to  be  found  above  three  millions  of  the  total  nineteen 
and  a  half  millions  of  inhabitants  who  share  the  immense 
area  (102,100  square  miles)  of  the  North  German  Lowland. 
Its  totality  is  naturally  divided  into  three  parts: — the 
shore-land  of  the  two  German  seas,  the  intermediate  dis- 
trict of  the  great  valleys,  and  the  southern  ridge  of  land 
at  a  distance  from  the  seas. 

The  southern  border  of  the  lowland,  from  the 
Malapane    to    the    Droemling    and    the    Aller,    is    pretty 

sharply  marked  by  a  series  of  valleys. 

c.         /■         xu         i.  •   i.         XI  •   1      The  Great  Valleys. 

Sometimes  the  entrance  mto  a  thmly 

peopled  district  on  its  northern  side  is  rendered  par- 
ticularly striking  by  a  wide  strip  of  barren  woodland  ; 
this  is  the  case  in  Upper  Silesia,  in  the  Heath  of  Lusatia, 
in  Lower  Silesia,  and  along  the  south  of  the  Altmark. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  roads  from  Breslau  and  Witten- 
berg, which  are  important  crossing-places  of  rivers, 
lead  directly  through  ploughed  lands  and  numerous 
villages  up  to  the  dry  heights  of  the  southern  ridge 
of  land,  where  a  rich  variety  of  cultivation  is  exhibited 
— orchards,  fields,  and  considerable  forests.  The  final 
section  of  this  ridge  is  the  Liineburg  Heath,  an  un- 
dulating plain  scantily  populated  and  better  adapted  for 
sheep-grazing  than  for  agriculture. 

The  southern  of  the  great  valleys  (p.  103)  is  not  favour- 
able to  longitudinal  communications  ;  swamps  and  ponds 
fill  some  reaches  of  its  ground.  Towns  indicate  the  cross- 
ing-places of  rivers  and  swamps.  Such  are  Glogau  on  the 
Oder,  Cottbus  on  the  Spree,  Brandenburg  on  the  Havel, 
once  the  strongest  river-castle  of  the  Wends.  Standing 
opposite  to  Magdeburg,  it  so  effectually  dominated  the  en- 
trance to  the  Marches  of  Brandenburg  and  the  communi- 
cations of  their  western  parts,  that  the  Margraves  chose  it 
for  their  residence.  Since  it  ceased  to  be  a  capital  and  a 
bishopric,  it  has  become  a  provincial  town,  whose  exterior 


278  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

still  preserves  old  memories,  but  of  which  the  present  life 
is  dominated  by  manufactures,  especially  by  the  weaving 
of  wool. 

The  second  great  line  of  valleys,  that  from  Warsaw 
to  Berlin,  possesses  for  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  no 
towns.  To  the  prosperity  of  Warsaw,  which  lies  at  its 
eastern  end,  it  contributes  nothing.  The  crossing-places  of 
the  roads  in  Poland  and  Posen  are  wretched  hamlets.  The 
more  amazing  is  the  appearance  of  Berlin  in  this  valley 
line,  which  continues  on  the  other  side  of  Spandau  with 
broken  and  thinly  peopled  country  as  far  as  Havelberg. 

The  most  northerly  valley,  which  runs  along  the 
southern  foot  of  the  high  Baltic  ridge,  possesses  a  trading 
town  of  old-established  reputation  in  Thorn.  It  was  at 
this  point  that  the  mediaeval  lines  of  traffic  which  came 
up  the  Vistula  and  along  the  shore  divided,  to  carry  the 
goods  brought  from  the  sea  to  Frankfort,  Breslau,  and 
Cracow.  The  Vistula  was  the  main  artery  of  life  to  this 
town,  and  so  it  is  still.  But  for  want  of  care  the  upper 
Russian  reaches  have  lost  some  of  their  importance,  while 
towards  the  west  the  ancient  channel,  where  formerly  the 
original  Vistula,  now  the  Brahe,  Netze,  and  Warta  run, 
has  once  more  been  revived  and  made  of  use  by  means 
of  the  canals  constructed  by  the  Prussian  Government. 
The  greater  part  of  the  vast  quantity  of  timber  floated 
down  from  Russia  takes  its  way  westward  into  the  district 
of  the  Oder.  On  this  canal  a  serious  rival  of  Thorn  grew 
up  in  Bromberg. 

When,  however,  we  leave  these  old  valley  lines  of  the 
diluvial  period,  fallen  in  our  present  system  of  water-ways 
to  mere  tributaries,  and  we  turn  to  the  newer  water- 
courses which  run  northward  and  connect  the  old  valleys, 
we  find  no  great  town  in  the  interior  of  Eastern  Germany, 
but  only  the  secondary  towns  of  Frankfort  and  Posen, 
both  of  which  lie  upon  the  line  of  the  old  roadway.  The 
ancient  capital  of  Great  Poland  occupies  a  central  posi- 
tion between  the  Bartsch  and  the  Netze.  Within  this  outer 
framing  an  inner  square  is  formed  in  the  immediate 
environs  of  Posen  by  the  waters  of  the  Warta,  the  Obra, 


NORTH    GERMANY  279 

the  Warta  again,  and  the  Welna,  while  various  other 
streams  run  close  to  the  city.  By  means  of  this  natural 
water-fortress  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Poland  long  made 
head  against  advancing  Germany,  until  indeed  the  capital 
was  again  removed  in  1296  to  the  Vistula  in  order  to  be 
nearer  to  the  advancing  eastern  frontier.  But  even  after 
this,  Posen,  which  had  been  turned  by  German  immi- 
grants into  a  real  town,  remained  an  important  and 
populous  place  at  the  crossing  of  busy  trading  roads.  It 
fell  into  decay  only  with  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 
Now,  cared  for  by  an  enlightened  and  honest  Govern- 
ment, it  is  quickly  recovering  as  the  capital  of  a  province 
whose  excellent  soil  distinguishes  it  most  advantageously 
from  the  Mark.  As  an  important  junction  of  the  com- 
munications of  all  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Empire,  Posen 
is  strongly  fortified.  In  regard  to  ideal  matters,  too,  it  is 
an  important  outpost  of  German  civilisation. 

Communication  between  Posen  and  the  Elbe  district 
was  originally  carried  on  by  way  of  the  lowland  bay  of 
Leipzig  and  the  main  Thuringian  highway.  Since  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  however,  the  more 
northerly  road  between  Magdeburg  and  Posen,  by  the 
passage  of  the  Oder  at  Frankfort,  has  gradually  come  to 
be  preferred.  For  some  hundreds  of  years  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder  succeeded  in  making  itself  the  terminus  of  the 
trade  that  came  up  that  river  from  the  sea,  and  also  in 
securing, for  a  considerable  extent  of  the  river, the  monopoly 
of  passage  for  traffic  to  Poland.  This  position  of  pre- 
dominance was  only  undermined  in  the  seventeenth 
century  by  the  opening  of  a  canal  between  the  Oder  and 
the  Spree,  and  by  the  complete  emancipation  of  naviga- 
tion on  the  Oder.  Up  to  the  nineteenth  century,  how- 
ever, the  fairs  of  Frankfort  remained  favourite  meeting- 
places  of  East  German  and  Polish  traders.  Manu- 
facture in  these  days  compensates  it  for  many  of  its 
commercial  losses ;  the  smelting  of  iron  and  the 
manufacture  of  machinery  are  largely  carried  on,  the 
raw  materials  being  brought  up  by  the  river  and  by 
six  lines  of  railway. 


28o  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Westward  of  Frankfort  the  diluvial  plateau,  whose 
extensive  area  on  the  east  of  the  Oder  offers  a  large  con- 
nected tract  of  fertile  loam  for  agricultural  use,  grows 
narrower,  and  is  at  the  same  time  more  broken  up  by 
lines  of  valley.  Loose  masses  of  sand  growing  nothing 
but  Scotch  firs,  and  valleys  of  marshy  character  become 
more  and  more  prevalent  as  we  approach  the  Elbe,  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  which  we  find  only  a  few 
islands  of  fertile  diluvial  country  rising  from  the  wide 
meadow  hollows  through  which  the  Havel  takes  its  wind- 
ing course,  often  widening  out  into  lakes.  But  before 
the  traveller  comes  to  the  cheerful  shore  of  the  Havel  and 
the  changing  pictures  mirrored  in  its  waters,  the  train, 
which  for  an  hour  before  has  carried  him  chiefly  through 
dark  woods,  brings  him  suddenly  to  the  capital  of  the 
German  Empire,  which  seems  to  have  been  set  down  by 
some  spell  in  this  poor  and  sandy  country. 

The  fortunes  of  Germany  have  been  powerfully 
affected  by  the  circumstance  that  none  of  its  districts 
had  by  nature  and  position  a  supremacy  which 
secured  the  unity  of  the  whole  and  its  rule  from 
one  particular  point.  Not  by  an  edict  of  nature,  but  by 
fierce  struggles  that  have  determined  the  course  of  history 
has  the  new  empire  gained  what  the  old  lacked — a 
capital. 

The  position  of  Berlin  is,  nevertheless,  not  devoid 
of  geographical  interest.  If,  however,  we  desire  an  im- 
pression corresponding  to  all  the  facts,  we  must  content 
ourselves,  in  judging  the  choice  of  the  spot,  with  a  very 
narrow  horizon,  and  then  afterwards  consider  how  en- 
lightenment and  energy  have  been  able  so  to  utilise  and 
develop  the  situation  that  it  satisfies  the  demands  of 
one  of  the  world's  great  cities.  The  Mark  formed  a 
border-land  of  the  old  empire,  gradually  spreading  to- 
wards the  east.  Its  seat  of  government  changed  with  its 
eastern  frontier.  From  Salzwedel  it  was  moved  eastward 
in  1 141  across  the  Elbe  to  Brandenburg,  the  name  of 
which   is    rightly   borne  by   the  country   that   forms   the 


NORTH   GERMANY  281 

core  of  the  monarchy.  It  still  grew  quickly  eastward,  and 
extended  beyond  the  Oder.  But  internal  troubles  caused 
the  capital  to  be  once  more  withdrawn  to  the  left  bank 
of  the  Elbe  at  Tangermiinde.  Yet  the  double  town  of 
Berlin-Kolln  was  already  in  existence,  and  enjoying  a 
modest  prosperity  as  a  trading-place  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Spree,  and  on  an  island  that  facilitated  the  cross- 
ing. Possessing  chartered  privileges,  the  town  became, 
thanks  to  its  central  position,  the  head  of  a  little  league 
of  towns  in  the  Mark.  This  period  was  cut  short  in  a 
very  surprising  and  unpleasant  manner  by  the  second 
of  the  Hohenzollern  Electors,  who  in  1442  repealed  the 
ancient  rights  of  Berlin  and  Kolln,  and  in  145 1  built 
himself  a  castle  between  the  two  towns.  From  149 1 
onward  this  castle  was  the  permanent  abode  of  the 
rulers  of  the  Mark,  with  whose  fortunes  Berlin  was 
thenceforward   closely   related. 

Lying  midway  between  the  two  parallel  rivers  of  the 
Elbe  and  the  Oder,  in  the  centre  of  the  old  valley — 
only  partly  filled  by  the  Spree — that  connects  them  by 
means  of  a  diagonal  to  the  north-west,  Berlin  was  very 
well  adapted  to  be  the  meeting-place  of  all  the  interior 
lines  of  traffic  of  the  Mark.  But  its  situation  gained 
a  more  widely  reaching  importance  when,  in  1668,  the 
Great  Elector  opened  the  canal  between  the  Oder  and 
the  Spree,  which  made  Berlin  the  centre  of  navigation 
between  Breslau  and  Hamburg,  and  created  the  main 
diagonal  of  water  traffic  in  North  Germany. 

At  Berlin  cross  the  world's  great  roads  from  Paris 
to  St.  Petersburg,  from  London  to  Odessa,  and  from 
Stockholm  to  Rome,  while  the  greatest  continental 
railway  of  the  world,  which  crosses  the  whole  mainland 
from  Lisbon  by  way  of  Moscow  to  Vladivostock,  has  one 
of  its  principal  stations  at  Berlin. 

Berlin  is  the  greatest  manufacturing  town  of  Central 
Europe.  The  beginnings  of  its  industrial  activity  go 
back  to  the  time  when  the  Great  Elector  settled  the 
French  refugees  here,  whose  western  civilisation  was 
advantageously    grafted    upon    the    strong    race    of    the 


282  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Mark.  The  greatest  strides  in  its  progress,  however,  belong 
to  quite  modern  times. 

Of  the  wage-earners  of  Berlin,  53  per  cent,  are 
engaged  in  manufacture  and  24  per  cent,  in  trade,  or 
upon  the  various  means  of  communication.  Of  the  total 
of  those  who  are  employed  industrially,  31  per  cent,  are 
engaged  in  the  clothing  trades,  in  which  Berlin  has 
gradually  gained  a  position  for  itself  apart  from  the  lead 
of  Paris ;  1 2  per  cent,  are  engaged  in  a  machinery 
manufacture  which  not  only  supplies  every  department 
of  practical  life,  but  has  also  a  world-wide  reputation  for 
scientific  instruments  of  precision. 

Very  considerable  assistance  is  given  to  Berlin  in  its 
economic  struggles  by  the  activity  of  scientific  life,  which 
by  its  inventions  opens  new  ways  in  many  departments  of 
industry,  and  secures  constant  employment  to  others. 
The  Technical  College  at  Charlottenburg  is  a  bright 
example  of  the  economic  productivity  of  intellectual 
studies.  Nor  will  the  observer  who  is  accustomed  to 
look  deeply  into  the  development  of  nations  and  into  the 
ways  in  which  they  forge  their  own  fortunes  forget  the 
University  of  Berlin.  There  is  no  branch  of  knowledge 
in  which  this  university  has  not,  at  one  time  or  another, 
taken  a  leading  place,  and  long  and  profitably  retained 
it.  From  200,000  in  the  year  1808,  Berlin  has  increased 
to  a  population  of  1,888,000.  Nor  is  this  all.  Like 
planetary  bodies,  capitals  cast  off  fragments  of  population 
which,  sometimes  with  specialised  functions,  lead  a  life 
of  their  own.  The  towns  of  Charlottenburg  and  Schone- 
berg,  though  they  continue  to  be  separate  municipalities, 
are  now  in  direct  contact  with  Berlin,  and  so  are  many 
villages  of  an  urban  character,  one  of  which,  Rixdorf^ 
has  90,000  inhabitants.  The  whole  ring  of  suburbs  that 
surrounds  Berlin  and  derives  light  from  it  as  a  centre, 
adds  more  than  700,000  persons  to  the  number  of  the 
capital's  population.  This  includes  the  two  old  towns  of 
the  Havel,  Spandau  and  Potsdam,  which  have  been  com- 
pletely enclosed  within  the  precincts  of  Berlin.  The  junc- 
tion of  the  Havel  and  the  Spree  afforded  to  Spandau  a 


NORTH    GERMANY  283 

position  which,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  secure  but  not 
very  healthy.  It  is  now  the  central  military  storehouse  of 
the  Empire,  and  has  great  arsenals  and  workshops  for  the 
manufacture  of  arms  and  ammunition  ;  the  imperial 
military  treasure,  too,  is  kept  here.  Potsdam,  on  the 
other  hand,  which  lies  amid  the  parks  belonging  to 
the  castles  of  Sanssouci,  Babelsberg,  and  Glienicke,  is  a 
quiet  and  pleasant  royal  residence.  The  great  pools  of 
the  Havel  lakes,  the  clumps  of  trees  in  the  pleasure 
garden,  with  the  castles  peeping  out  between,  breathe  rest 
and  peace  and  invite  to  the  easy  enjoyment  of  an  honour- 
able leisure. 

The  varying  struggles  of  nations  for  existence,  the  rise 
and  fall  of  their  importance,  leave  traces  in  the  alterations 
of  their  national  and  political  boundaries,  -p^g  German 
The  most  important  peculiarity  in  the  outline  Countries 
of  the  German  Empire,  and  one  which  must  of  the 
influence  its  future  destinies,  is  the  imperfect  Baltic 
correspondence  between  the  extent  of  its  inland  territory 
and  its  coast-line.  To  the  west,  the  delta  of  the  Rhine 
has  become  politically  separated,  so  that  the  mouth 
of  the  largest  German  river  lies  in  foreign  hands.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  results  of  German  mediaeval  colonisation 
have  so  far  maintained  themselves,  that  the  lower  reaches 
of  the  Vistula  and  the  Niemen,  the  rivers  of  Poland  and 
Lithuania,  are  ruled  by  their  German  inhabitants.  The 
development  of  East  Prussia  and  Dantzig  is  impeded  by 
the  manner  in  which  they  are,  as  it  were,  embraced  by 
Russia  ;  they  are  cut  off  from  the  "  hinterland "  by  the 
tariffs  of  a  power  whose  aim  is  to  isolate  herself  as  far  as 
possible,  and  other  obstacles  besides  the  unfavourable 
climate  are  thus  put  in  the  way  of  progress  in  this 
portion  of  Germany.  Finally,  the  German  duty  on 
wheat  helped  to  drive  the  most  important  product  of 
Poland  and  Lithuania,  which  at  one  time  had  poured 
abundantly  into  Prussian  ports,  to  the  ports  of  Russia, 
especially  to  the  rapidly  rising  Libau.  The  rivers,  in  these 
days,  when  free  from  ice,  carry  down  a  vast  quantity  of 


284  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

timber,  but  scarcely  anything  else.  The  towns  which  suffer 
most  severely  from  being  thus  shut  off  from  the  "  hinter- 
land "  are  naturally  those  of  the  Niemen :  Tilsit,  which, 
while  the  old  system  of  roadways  lasted,  was  an  important 
crossing-place  at  the  narrowest  point  of  a  valley  that  is 
in  most  parts  very  broad,  and  also  liable  to  be  widely 
flooded  ;  and  Memel,  which  stands  at  the  sole  outlet  of 
the  Curische  Haff. 

Konigsberg,  situated  between  the  two  Haffs  of  East 
Prussia  and  able  to  communicate  with  both,  enjoys  a 
larger  sphere  of  influence,  while  it  dominates  the  low 
heights  of  the  coast  as  far  as  the  amber  shore  of  Samland, 
and  also  the  fertile  tract  of  land  at  the  foot  of  the  Baltic 
ridge.  Its  access  to  the  sea  was  imperfect  until  the 
Konigsberg  Sea  Canal  was  carried  across  the  Haff  be- 
tween moles.  Now  ships  of  more  than  twenty  feet 
draught  come  into  Konigsberg,  which  lies  twenty-five 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  opening  of  a  free  port  here 
will  contribute  to  increased  activity  of  trade.  The  im- 
portation of  coal  by  sea  and  of  wood  by  river  helps  to 
keep  up  some  manufactures  which  mainly  serve  the  needs 
of  the  province,  and  so  do  not  profit  much  by  the  fact 
that  the  town  is  on  the  main  line  to  the  capital  of  Russia, 
The  efforts  made  to  improve  the  place  have  succeeded 
in  making  it  the  largest  of  the  German  towns  on  the 
Baltic,  and  its  university  is  the  centre  of  intellectual  life 
in  the  North-East  German  provinces. 

The  farther  south  we  go  from  Konigsberg,  the  less 
populous  the  country  appears  until  we  reach  the  extensive 
wooded  district  of  Masuria,  the  large  lakes  of  which  are 
connected  by  watercourses  with  one  another  and  with  the 
rivers  of  Poland  and  Prussia.  The  population  sinks  here 
to  less  than  100  to  the  square  mile.  Severely  schooled 
by  stern  nature,  one  of  the  sturdiest  races  of  Germany 
has  grown  up  in  East  Prussia,  a  race  which  left  a  never- 
to-be-forgotten  example  of  self-sacrifice  and  patriotism  at 
the  time  of  the  war  against  the  Napoleonic  tyranny. 

The  valley  of  the  Vistula  carries  a  tract  of  fertile,  well- 
cultivated  land  across  Prussia.    The  district  lying  between 


NORTH    GERxMANY  285 

the  two  branches  of  its  estuary,  one  of  which  falls  into 
the  southern  corner  of  the  Frische  Haff  and  the  other 
into  the  Gulf  of  Dantzig,  is  in  particular  one  of  the 
richest  pieces  of  wheat-growing  land  in  North  Germany. 
Here  there  is  a  dense  population,  ready  to  protect  the 
dikes  if  the  swollen  river  should  threaten  their  hoped- 
for  harvests.  Close  by  arose  the  most  prosperous  towns 
of  West  Prussia.  The  railway  from  Berlin  to  Konigsberg 
crosses  the  branches  of  the  dividing  Vistula  at  Dirschau 
and  at  Marienburg,  which  stands  on  the  high  right  bank 
of  the  Nogat  and  was  the  earliest  seat  of  government  of 
the  Teutonic  Order  ;  it  then,  before  approaching  the 
Frische  Haff,  runs  at  the  edge  of  the  rich  marshes  that 
have  filled  up  its  south  end,  and  passes  the  great  ship- 
building yards  and  machinery  workshops  of  Elbing,  a 
place  which,  by  means  of  the  river  of  its  own  name  and 
the  Oberland  canal,  carries  on  a  busy  trade  with  the  lakes 
in  the  southern  hills,  and  has  always  made  efforts  to 
obtain  a  share  in  the  sea  trade  too  by  means  of  the 
Frische  Haff.  In  this  respect,  however,  its  neighbour  on 
the  west,  Dantzig,  is  incomparably  better  situated. 

If  we  enter  the  main  street  of  Dantzig,  buildings  of 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  at  once  speak  of  the 
prosperous  time  when  it  was  a  free  German  town,  the 
port  of  the  Polish  kingdom,  and  the  entrance  for  all  trade 
by  sea  with  the  whole  district  of  the  Vistula.  Its  inclusion 
in  Poland  unavoidably  involved  the  place  in  the  downfall 
of  that  kingdom.  Impoverished  and  enfeebled,  it  fell  at 
last  into  the  hands  of  Prussia,  and  pressed  upon  not  only 
by  the  nearness  of  the  Russian  frontier,  but  also  by  the 
competition  of  Konigsberg  and  Stettin,  has  but  very  slowly 
gained  fresh  strength.  Natural  causes  also  interfered. 
The  Vistula,  which  formerly  conducted  its  main  stream 
past  the  north  side  of  the  town  and  fell  into  the  sea  to  the 
north-west  at  Neufahrwasser,  broke  through  the  dunes  on 
the  east  at  Neufahr  in  1840,  and  made  itself  a  new  mouth 
at  some  distance  from  Dantzig.  Engineering  skill  suc- 
ceeded in  drawing  an  advantage  even  from  this  catastrophe. 
The  old  arm  of  the  Vistula  was  now  closed  near  Neufahr 


286 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


by  a  sluice-gate,  retaining  high  floods  and  floating  ice  ; 
its  eastern  reach  was  turned  into  a  great  harbour,  and 
its  western  into  a  sea-canal  by  which  ships  could  come 
up  from  the  outer  port  of  Neufahrwasser,  while  the  little 
river  Mottlau  which  runs  through  the  town  was  deepened 
by   dredging   to   fourteen   feet,   and   boats   were    enabled 


Fig.  37.— The  Delta  of  the  Vistula. 


to  come  actually  into  the  town  itself.  Recently  this 
arrangement  was  even  better  secured  by  removing  the 
high  waters  of  the  Vistula  yet  more  to  the  east  through 
a  canal  piercing  the  dunes  by  the  shortest  way. 

But  all  these  efforts  have  not  succeeded  in  raising  the 
sea  trade  much  above  that  of  Konigsberg.  The  inland 
waterways  have  been  completed  by  the  Vistula  and  Haff 


NORTH   GERMANY  287 

Canal,  which  connects  Elbing  and  Konigsberg.  If  com- 
merce, however,  has  made  no  great  strides  in  the  last  few 
decades,  manufactures  have  greatly  developed.  Shipbuild- 
ing, machine-making,  and  a  whole  series  of  trades  that  deal 
with  the  preparation  of  agricultural  products  are  especially 
flourishing.  The  sea-shore,  which  still  lies  at  a  distance 
of  three  miles  from  Dantzig,  is  bordered  by  friendly  little 
suburbs,  sea-bathing  places,  which  are  the  last  in  that  line 
of  visitors'  resorts  that  animate  the  Prussian  coast  and  the 
outlying  tongues  of  land  in  summer-time. 

Swinemiinde  is  the  busy  outer  port  of  Stettin,  which 
lies  on  the  inner  shore  of  the  Haff,  planted  high  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the  Oder,  and  continually 
extending.  Both  sides  of  the  river  are  covered  by  a  number 
of  suburbs  with  busy  factories,  which  if  they  were  reckoned 
in  would  make  Stettin  the  largest  centre  of  population 
(200,000  inhabitants)  on  the  German  shores  of  the  Baltic. 
Stettin,  the  most  southerly  of  all  the  Baltic  ports,  is  the 
most  important  trading  port  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia, 
the  gate  of  that  river  basin  which  falls  most  com- 
pletely within  the  territory  of  the  monarchy,  forming 
the  solid  kernel  around  which  the  other  provinces  were 
drawn  together,  at  first  loosely  and  then  in  firm  union. 
The  possession  of  this  place  was  of  fundamental  import- 
ance to  the  growth  of  the  State.  Stettin  has  prepared 
itself  by  means  of  new  docks  for  the  further  increase  of 
its  maritime  relations.  Besides  acting  as  a  port  for  the 
commerce  of  Berlin  and  of  four  productive  provinces, 
Stettin  has  a  lucrative  trade  of  its  own.  In  Conti- 
nental shipbuilding  the  "  Vulcan  "  yards  take  a  high  place. 
Great  cement-works,  too,  send  their  products  to  a  distance. 
The  mills,  breweries,  distilleries,  and  sugar-factories  of 
Stettin  are  the  principal  destination  of  the  agricultural 
products  of  Pomerania. 

While  the  estuaries  of  the  great  rivers  encourage  a 
concentration  of  inhabitants  in  the  three  great  towns 
of  the  three  old  Baltic  provinces  of  Prussia,  the  more 
divided  western  shore  of  the  German  Baltic,  with  the 
"  bodden "    and    creeks    of    Western    Pomerania,    Meek- 


288  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

lenburg,  and  Schleswig-Holstein,  shows  a  greater  number 
of  moderate-sized  towns,  most  of  them  old  and  formerly 
strong  members  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  competing  one 
against  another.  The  towns  of  Hither  Pomerania,  a  fertile 
district  in  which  agriculture  is  profitably  carried  on,  fall 
rather  behind  in  this  rivalry.  Rostock,  the  most  flourish- 
ing sea-town  of  Mecklenburg,  reaps  an  advantage  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  southerly  projection  of  Falster 
lies  just  opposite.  By  way  of  Rostock  a  crossing  of 
twenty-eight  miles  of  open  sea  between  Warnemiinde  and 
Gjedser  suffices  for  the  quickest  possible  communication 
between  Berlin  and  Copenhagen.  Rostock's  own  active 
shipping  trade  and  shipyards  give  it  one  of  the  first 
places  among  the  German  ports  on  the  Baltic.  It  is 
the  largest  town  in  Mecklenburg.  Schwerin  was  pre- 
ferred to  it  in  earlier  times  because  of  its  position 
between  the  lakes  of  the  interior,  w^hich  would  have 
been  difficult  of  attack,  and  the  charms  of  its  scenery 
fitted  it  to  be  a  pleasant  little  royal  residence,  but  a 
centre  of  traffic  it  could  never  have  become. 

If  we  consider  the  outline  of  the  Baltic  Sea  on  the 
whole,  we  must  perceive  that  the  south-western  angle  has 
a  peculiar  importance.  It  is  the  end  of  the  principal  axis 
of  the  long  basin  ;  it  comes  nearest  to  the  basin  of  the 
Elbe  and  to  West  Germany,  which  were  early  civi- 
lised. Here  Liibeck  on  the  Trave,  flourishing  as  long 
ago  as  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  the  chief 
city  of  the  German  Hanseatic  League,  and  mistress  for  a 
lengthened  period  of  the  Baltic  Sea  and  of  the  trade  that 
dealt  with  the  produce  of  its  fisheries  and  with  the  raw 
material  of  adjacent  countries.  Liibeck  continued  to  hold 
a  position  of  privilege  in  the  world  as  long  as  an  impulse 
towards  the  east  ruled  West  Germany's  spirit  of  enterprise, 
and  as  long  as  the  thinly  peopled  countries  of  the  Baltic 
opposed  but  a  passive  resistance  to  German  exploitation 
of  their  treasures.  When  trans-oceanic  discoveries  made 
the  Atlantic  and  the  North  Sea  the  theatre  of  navigation 
on  a  larger  scale  and  to  remoter  ports,  the  Scandinavian 
nations  rose  to  greater  economic  independence  and  political 


NORTH    GERMANY  289 

strength.  Then  the  star  of  Liibeck  set.  Its  prudent  citi- 
zens, however,  managed  to  maintain  an  honoured  position 
and  to  attract  a  considerable  trade.  They  deepened  the 
little  river  Trave,  so  that  ships  of  five  metres'  draught  can 
come  up  to  the  town  instead  of  stopping  at  Travemiinde. 
By  building  the  Elbe  and  Trave  canal  they  have  lately 
improved  the  connection  by  water  with  the  Elbe,  originally 
opened  in  1398  by  means  of  the  Stecknitz  Canal,  the 
oldest  in  Germany,  and  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  that 
beset  a  little  republic  standing  among  larger  neighbours 
who  pursued  their  own  interests,  Liibeck  has  also  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  advantageously  linked  on  to  the  North 
German  railway  system.  The  town  has  thus,  not  indeed 
advanced  so  rapidly  as  several  of  the  Baltic  ports  in  the 
Prussian  domain,  but  preserved  a  respectable  importance. 
Its  Baltic  trade  reaps  a  natural  advantage  from  its  having 
all  Western  Germany  as  its  hinterland.  In  this  respect 
Liibeck  remains  superior  to  the  ports  of  Schleswig-Holstein, 
which  have  only  a  narrow  strip  of  peninsula  behind  them. 

Kiel  alone  lies  sufficiently  to  the  south  to  compete 
with  Liibeck,  but  the  importance  of  this  beautiful 
Holstein  port  now  rests  upon  other  grounds.  As 
the  great  naval  station  of  the  German  Empire,  Kiel,  which 
was  once  a  quiet  little  university  town,  has  advanced 
with  rapid  strides.  The  improvements  which  have  been 
made  in  the  military  interest  are  also  of  service  to  its 
commerce.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  regard  to  the 
construction  of  the  North  Sea  Canal,  which  transfers  to 
Kiel  some  part  of  the  old  and  long  misused  privileges 
enjoyed  by  Copenhagen  as  the  gate  of  the  Baltic. 

A  journey  along  the  German  shores  of  the  Baltic 
leaves  behind  some  impression  of  the  historical  and 
economic  importance  of  this  sea.  In  the  nature  of 
things,  the  eastern  ports  of  the  Baltic  are  particularly 
eager  for  ocean  trade.  Of  the  vessels  that  land  on  the 
shores  of  East  Prussia,  48  per  cent.,  and  71  per  cent. 
of  the  whole  tonnage,  come  from  waters  outside  the 
Baltic.  In  Liibeck  these  significant  figures  fall  to  five 
and  eleven  respectively.     In  the  old  Hanse  town,  which 


290  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

was  once  mistress  of  the  Baltic  trade,  the  impression  of 
the  Baltic  as  an  enclosed  sphere  of  commerce  still  re- 
mains alive.  And,  indeed,  when  we  consider  the  whole 
circle  of  the  Baltic,  we  cannot  deny  that  its  enclosed 
character  does  limit  not  only  the  nature  of  its  waters 
— their  saltness,  their  slowness  to  freeze,  and  their  re- 
sponse to  the  pulsations  of  ebb  and  flow — but  also  the 
vitality  of  its  trade,  and  that  in  regard  to  time,  space, 
and  intensity.  Although  the  Baltic  coast  of  Germany  is 
fully  double  as  long  as  its  North  Sea  coast,  the  latter 
has  three  times  as  many  vessels,  five  times  as  many 
sailors,  and  six  times  as  large  a  tonnage. 

Nor  can  the  sea-fishing  of  the  Baltic  compare  with 
that  of  the  North  Sea,  at  least  since  the  time  when  the 
herring-fishery,  which  we  are  assured  on  good  authority 
used  to  be  pursued  off  the  coast  of  Scania,  changed  its 
place  for  the  benefit  of  the  Scotch  and  Norwegian  shores. 
Fish,  however,  still  continues  to  be  an  important  factor 
in  the  earnings  of  the  people  of  the  Baltic  coasts,  and 
to  supply  a  profitable  trade,  which  not  only  provides  the 
inland  market  with  smoked  and  salted  fish,  but  since 
transit  has  been  so  much  quickened  and  perfected,  sends 
fresh  fish,  alive  or  in  ice,  through  long  distances.  Elbing 
lampreys,  Pomeranian  flounders,  and  Kiel  sprats  are 
widely  esteemed.  The  herring  especially  forms  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  food  of  the  people  throughout 
a  wide  area. 

The    traveller   who    crosses   Schleswig-Holstein   from 
the  Baltic  to  the  shores  of  the   North   Sea,  and  expects 
to    pass    immediately    into    a    region    of 
The  German  ^^^j^^  international  trade  and   rich   life, 

Countries  of  ,,   r     -i  ■,  •     r     ^      ■,  i-  ■   ^■ 

THE  North  Sea  "^^^^^  "-^^  "^^  "^^^  advance  disappomtmg. 
The  whole  peninsula  turns  its  face  de- 
cidedly to  the  Baltic,  whose  waves  and  whose  trade  it 
receives  with  wide-opened  arms  of  land,  taking  them  into 
cheerful  and  safe  bays,  while  the  west  side  of  the  country 
is  beaten,  torn,  and  swept  by  the  wild  winds  and  turbu- 
lent waves  of  the  North  Sea.  Only  in  the  summer  and 
early   autumn    are    the    bathing-places    of    Sylt   and    the 


NORTH    GERMANY  291 

neighbouring  islands  peopled  by  landsmen,  who  come 
here  for  a  few  weeks  to  listen  to  the  regular  beat  of 
the  mighty  waves,  and  to  refresh  themselves  in  the  sea- 
foam  before  returning  to  the  long  and  enervating  im- 
prisonment of  their  working  places.  During  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  stillness  prevails  upon  these  islands 
and  the  shores  behind.  Their  "  geest "  country  is  not 
fertile,  and  is  thinly  peopled.  Farther  to  the  south  there 
comes  a  strip  of  rich  marshland  sheltered  by  a  dike, 
where  cattle  are  fattened,  and  agriculture  is  profitable. 
But  it  is  not  until  the  estuary  of  the  Elbe  that  the  tide 
rushing  in  opens  a  gate  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

The  river  Elbe  is  bordered  by  low  marshes  with  pro- 
tecting dikes  for  nearly  sixty  miles  from  its  wide  mouth. 
Then,  on  the  right  bank,  at  Blankenese,  the  high  bank 
of  the  diluvial  tableland  appears,  close  to  the  river, 
its  hills  covered  by  gay  gardens  and  country-houses. 
Here,  between  the  arms  of  the  North  and  South  Elbe, 
which  presently  reunite,  begins  a  region  of  islands,  in- 
tersected by  variable  watercourses.  This  alluvial  district, 
however,  lies  within  a  firm  framework  ;  eight  miles 
above  Blankenese  on  both  sides  of  the  valley — which 
at  Harburg  and  Hamburg  is  only  six  miles  wide — 
the  high  "  geest "  country  comes  close  up  to  the  South 
Elbe  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  North  Elbe  on  the 
other.  Here  was  a  crossing  marked  out  by  nature,  for 
the  valley  widens  out  again  farther  up.  Even  in  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  the  Franks  had  secured  the  right 
bank.  There  Hamburg  arose  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Alster.  In  a  position  threatened  on  three  sides  its 
existence  was  long  insecure  ;  it  was  burnt  now  by  pirate 
Northmen,  now  by  the  Wends,  now  by  the  Danes.  It 
was  not  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  German 
frontier  was  advanced,  that  tranquil  development  became 
possible,  and  new  strength  was  given  by  the  immigra- 
tion of  the  citizens  of  Bardowik,  a  trading  town  higher 
up  the  river,  which  had  been  flourishing  upon  the  next 
crossing-place  of  the  road  from  Liibeck  to  Liineburg, 
and  was   destroyed  in    1189.     In  the  thirteenth  century 


292  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

the  Alster  was  dammed  up  for  the  benefit  of  the  mills, 
and  one  of  the  most  charming  features  in  the  landscape 
of  the  town,  the  lake  of  the  Alster  basin,  was  artificially 
formed.  This  sheet  of  water  gave  security  to  the  place,, 
and  the  alliance  with  Liibeck,  which  formed  the  germ 
of  the  great  and  progressive  Hanseatic  League,  gave  it 
an  opportunity  of  increasing  its  power  and  its  posses- 
sions undisturbed.  But  it  long  remained  a  Hanse  town 
of  only  the  second  rank.  It  was  the  discovery  of 
America  and  the  increase  of  activity  on  the  Atlantic 
that  gave  Hamburg  its  growing  prosperity,  while  Liibeck 
fell  into  the  background.  Active  communication  was 
entered  into  with  England  ;  and  although  Germany  re- 
mained excluded  from  trans-oceanic  colonisation,  yet 
Hamburg's  spirit  of  enterprise  found  openings  that  were 
both  attractive  and  remunerative,  first  in  the  trade  of 
Brazil,  then  in  the  whale-fisheries  of  Spitsbergen.  The 
most  decisive  circumstance  in  the  trading  relations  of 
Hamburg  was  the  rise  to  independence  of  the  English 
colonies  in  North  America.  The  violence  of  the  Napo- 
leonic period  indeed  interrupted  this  hopeful  course  of 
progress,  but  in  the  nineteenth  century  it  continued  in  a 
brilliant  manner. 

The  embouchure  of  the  Bille  and  that  of  the  Alster 
open  out  into  wide  gulfs,  and  afford  an  opportunity  for 
the  formation  of  excellent  basins  from  which  canals  (the 
"  Fleets ")  run  between  the  lines  of  houses  and  ware- 
houses. But  trading  vessels  lie  even  in  the  middle  of  the 
river  loading  or  unloading  by  the  assistance  of  flat- 
bottomed  boats  plying  to  and  from  the  bank,  and  a  pic- 
ture of  confused  animation  is  presented  such  as  can  be 
matched  nowhere  upon  the  Continent.  The  unexpected 
strides  made  by  trade  in  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years 
have  rendered  all  the  earlier  arrangements  inadequate.  A 
vast  rearrangement  of  the  whole  harbour  was  undertaken 
in  1882,  when  Hamburg  decided  to  join  the  German 
Customs  Union,  and  only  to  retain  for  the  future  a  cer- 
tain clearly  marked  off  portion  of  its  shore,  waters,  and 
islands  as  a  free  port.      A   space  of   nearly  four   square 


NORTH    GERMANY  293 

miles,  mainly  opposite  to  Hamburg,  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  North  Elbe,  has  been  laid  out  as  a  free  harbour, 
which  in  addition  to  the  roomy  basin  with  its  long  quays, 
appliances  for  loading,  railways,  and  extensive  ware- 
houses, contains  great  shipbuilding  yards  and  other 
workshops,  but  no  dwelling-houses.  Other  basins  and 
canals  more  closely  connected  with  the  town  serve  the 
traffic,  principally  such  as  comes  down  the  river,  that 
passes  under  the  Customs  Union  and  moves  within  its 
rule. 

Hamburg  does  not  confine  itself  to  acting  as  an  inter- 
mediary for  the  exchange  of  Germany's  products  with 
those  of  neighbouring  countries,  and  even  of  remote 
zones  ;  it  undertakes  a  great  part  of  the  manufacture  of 
the  raw  materials  brought  into  it  and  passes  them  on  in 
their  completed  state  to  the  places  of  their  consumption. 
Factories  in  which  coffee  is  roasted,  chocolate  made, 
rice  peeled,  palm-oil  and  ground-nuts  worked  to  soap, 
deal  with  tropical  products,  while  raw  materials  from. 
North  America  are  worked  up  in  grease  refineries  and 
margarine  factories,  and  wheat  from  the  other  side  of  the 
ocean  is  ground  in  steam-mills.  The  vast  shipping  trade 
not  only  employs  the  yards,  but  gives  work  to  a  number 
of  trades  that  supply  various  ship  fittings  or  necessaries 
for  the  crews.  Thus,  in  this  greatest  commercial  town 
of  the  Continent,  the  proportion  of  persons  engaged 
in  productive  industries  (which  is  43  per  cent.)  surpasses 
that  of  persons  engaged  in  commerce  and  traffic  (39^ 
per  cent.). 

The  river  brings  down  sugar,  salt,  alkalies,  timber, 
stone,  and  also  coal,  and  carries  up  wheat,  meal,  colonial 
wares,  nitrate  of  potassium,  and,  above  all,  petroleum. 
In  bulk  English  coal  and  wheat  exceed  all  other  goods 
brought  by  sea ;  saltpetre,  iron,  and  petroleum  come 
next,  and  colonial  produce  only  after  these.  But  in 
value  coffee  stands  far  ahead,  and  sometimes  accounts 
for  one-eighth  of  the  total  sum.  Then  follow  wheat, 
wool  and  cotton,  hides  and  skins,  saltpetre,  ores  and 
pig  iron,  other  metals,  materials  for  dyeing  and  tanning. 


294  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

oil-seeds,  and  oils.  The  whole  movement  of  trade  in 
Hamburg,  including  that  in  precious  metals,  showed 
imports  to  the  amount  of  3856  millions  in  1900,  and 
exports  to  the  amount  of  3309,  thus  giving  the  town 
the  third  place,  beside  Liverpool,  in  the  trade  of  the 
world  after  London  and  New  York.  Great  lines  of 
mail-steamers  connect  Hamburg  with  every  part  of  the 
world. 

This  development  has  increased  the  population  of 
Hamburg  to  a  degree  that  has  overflowed  the  limits  of 
the  republic's  small  territory.  The  actual  town  of  Ham- 
burg, whose  streets  once  lay  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
basin  of  the  Alster,  has  now  grown  inland  until  the  whole 
expanse  of  the  lake,  divided  by  the  magnificent  Lombard 
Bridge,  is  enclosed  by  suburbs.  On  the  north-east  the 
town  of  Wandsbeck  in  Holstein  is  touched,  and  on  the 
west,  along  the  bank  of  the  Elbe,  Hamburg  runs  into 
Altona,  which,  although  the  largest  town  in  Holstein  and 
a  busy  manufacturing  place,  appears  to  be  but  one  of 
its  suburbs.  If,  besides  some  smaller  places,  we  include 
the  town  of  Harburg,  the  meeting  place  of  the  western 
railways,  we  shall  find  that  the  whole  population  of  the 
busy  economic  aggregation  that  has  crystallised  around 
the  old  centre  of   Hamburg  amounts  to   1,000,000. 

The  long  distance  of  Hamburg  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Elbe  gives  special  importance  to  the  little  territory  of 
Cuxhaven,  which  was  acquired  by  the  free  town  as  early 
as  1393,  and  whose  signal  light  guides  vessels  on  their 
entrance  into  the  river  ;  it  also  possesses  a  harbour  for 
use  in  winter  and  in  emergencies. 

The  immense  strides  made  by  Hamburg  are  no  doubt 
due  in  very  great  measure  to  its  geographical  position. 
It  lies  at  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  North  Sea,  the 
farthest  point  attainable  by  oceanic  navigation,  and  at  the 
opening  of  the  greatest  river  system  of  Germany — a  net- 
work of  inland  navigation  the  ramifications  of  which 
reach  to  Prague,  Kosel,  and  Thorn,  and  run  round  and 
through  the  capital  of  the  Empire.  No  wonder  that  no 
other  German  port  can  keep  pace  with  Hamburg.     There 


NORTH    GERMANY  295 

is  only  one  which  has  bravely  tried  to  do  so  :  Bremen, 
the  oldest  of  German  sea  towns.  Bremen  maintained 
its  position  of  superiority  up  to  the  sixteenth  century. 
Since  that  time,  however,  it  has  felt  more  and  more 
keenly  the  disadvantage  of  standing  on  a  smaller  river, 
which  neither  brings  down  such  large  loads  from  the 
interior  nor  allows  the  largest  sort  of  vessels  to  come  up 
from  the  sea,  fifty  miles  away,  and  which,  moreover, 
being  narrower,  could  more  easily  be  closed  by  jealous 
neighbours.  The  town  has  held  out  bravely  even  against 
serious  enemies,  such  as  Sweden,  which  maintained 
a  dominion  over  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Weser, 
acquired  in  1648 — and  true  to  the  old  motto,  "  Navi- 
gare  necesse  est  ;  vivere  non  est  necesse  "  {"  Go  in  boats 
we  must ;  live  we  need  not "),  has  never  permitted  itself 
to  be  thrust  back  from  the  sea  and  its  trade.  In  the 
nineteenth  century  the  Weser,  even  though  the  tide  comes 
up  as  far  as  Bremen,  was  found  quite  inadequate  to  bring 
up  sea-going  vessels,  the  size  of  which  was  constantly 
increasing,  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town.  Bremen 
was  thus  forced  in  1827  to  buy  from  Hanover  a  strip  of 
land  on  the  right  bank,  thirty-five  miles  lower  down,  and 
there  to  lay  out  Bremerhaven.  The  basins  there  hollowed 
out,  whose  number  has  lately  been  increased  to  five,  are 
adapted  for  the  largest  possible  ocean-going  steamers. 
They  are  the  workshop  of  the  North  German  Lloyd, 
whose  swift  steamers  go  to  America,  Eastern  Asia,  and 
Australia.  A  relative  diminution  in  the  importance  of 
Bremerhaven  only  resulted  when  Bremen  itself  again 
made  efforts  to  take  a  larger  direct  share  in  sea  trade. 
In  the  last  ten  years  the  channel  of  the  Weser  has  been 
deepened  to  eighteen  feet  as  far  up  as  Bremen.  Great 
new  basins  just  below  the  old  town  were  formed  as  a 
free-trade  area  when  Bremen  completed  its  adhesion  to 
the  German  Customs  Union  in  1888.  The  number  of 
ships,  too,  belonging  to  Bremen  itself  is  especially  re- 
markable, and  is  by  no  means  so  much  behind  that  of 
Hamburg  as  its  population  is.     A  few  figures  from  the 


296  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

statistics    of    1901    will    show    what    the    importance    of 
Bremen  is  to  Germany  in  this  respect : — 


Vessels. 

Registered  Tons. 

Crews. 

Bremen 
Hamburg     . 
Kingdom  of  Prussia 
German  Empire  . 

.       566 
.       918 
.     2082 
.     3883 

833,860 
1,443,976 

417,926 
2,826,400 

14,755 
21,544 
11,525 
50,556 

Bremen  is  distinguished  by  the  large  average  tonnage 
of  its  vessels.  It  is  indeed  in  far-reaching  oceanic  traffic 
that  Bremen  stands  out  so  honourably.  The  trade  is 
mostly  with  the  United  States,  not  like  that  of  Hamburg 
with  Great  Britain  ;  and  though  the  whole  volume  of 
traffic  is  less  in  Bremen,  yet  in  some  articles,  in  the 
imports  of  tobacco,  rice,  and  cotton,  Bremen  takes  the 
first  place  on  the  Continent,  and  in  regard  to  the  first 
two  articles,  the  first  place  in  the  world.  The  character 
of  Bremen's  industries  is  regulated  accordingly.  They 
are  partly  connected  directly  with  shipping,  and  partly 
employed  upon  imported  materials  such  as  cotton  and 
jute.  The  great  tobacco  factories  are  scattered  in  villages 
far  beyond  the  suburbs  that  have  surrounded  the  vener- 
able kernel  of  the  old  city  with  comfortable  roomy  villas, 
where  it  is  possible  to  live  in  more  ease  and  quiet  than 
in  the  great  urban  bustle  of  Hamburg. 

The  Jade  bay,  an  old  estuary  of  the  Weser,  was 
chosen  by  Prussia  in  1853  as  a  naval  station.  Wilhelms- 
haven  grew  up  amid  hard  struggles  with  deceitful  marsh 
fevers,  storm-floods,  and  the  continual  silting  up  of  the 
entrance  to  the  harbour,  which,  while  unapproachable  for 
enemies,  was  not  free  from  danger  to  its  own  ships.  To 
commerce  the  place  can  never  be  of  much  importance,  as 
there  is  no  waterway  from  the  interior  to  the  bay. 

In  this  respect  the  Dollart,  an  opening  made  farther 
west  by  similar  incursions  of  the  sea  into  the  coast 
of  Friesland,  is  greatly  superior  to  the  Jade  bay.  The 
Ems,  indeed,  is  but  a  modest  stream,  running  in  a  sand- 
bed  between  extensive  moors,  and  Emden,  which  was  a 
flourishing  trading  town  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and 
beginning   of    the  seventeenth    centuries,  has    become    a 


NORTH    GERMANY  297 

quieter  place  since  the  river  turned  away  from  it.  A 
new  era  is  at  this  very  moment  opening  before  this 
district  of  poor  land  and  strong  people.  The  completion 
of  the  canal  between  Dortmund  and  the  Ems  opens  out 
what  has  been  a  quiet  cul-de-sac  into  a  main  artery  of 
traffic  ;  and  when  the  canal  from  Dortmund  to  the 
Rhine  has  been  added,  the  waterway  of  the  Ems  will 
assume  the  importance  of  a  mouth  of  the  Rhine  on 
German  territory.  New  life  may  then  animate  the  shores 
of  the  Dollart. 

Westward  of  the  Ems,  in  former  centuries,  before 
the  moor-colonies  had  carried  away  great  stretches  of  its 
upper  surface  of  peat  and  brought  the  under  surface 
into  cultivation,  the  Bourtanger  Moor  used  to  be  a  great 
desert,  a  wide  natural  borderland,  holding  East  and  West 
Friesland  apart,  notwithstanding  the  common  nature  of 
their  country  and  the  likeness  in  race  and  speech  of  their 
peoples.  This  fact  undeniably  contributed  to  the  separa- 
tion of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands. 

Note  on  Authorities.  —  An  admirable  monograph :  Die  Lander 
Braunschzueig  und  Hannover,  was  published  in  1867,  and  founded  the 
reputation  of  its  author,  H.  Guthe  ;  the  districts  along  the  coast  of  the 
North  Sea  have  never  been  better  described. 

A.  Zweck  published  an  account  of  Lithuania  in  1898,  and  of  Masuria 
in  1900. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

THE    NETHERLANDS 

It  was  not  owing  to  geographical  necessity  but  to  his- 
torical developments  that  the  western  wing  of  the  North 
German  lowland,  a  district  among  the  inhabitants  of 
which  German  races  largely  preponderate,  came  to  be 
politically  separate.  It  appears  as  the  last  outcome — and 
the  only  one  which  has  succeeded  in  attaining  any  per- 
manence— of  the  repeated  attempts  to  form  a  neutral  and 
independent  territory  between  France  and  Germany.  At 
a  period  in  which,  roads  being  but  ill  developed,  rivers 
formed  the  main  arteries  of  communication,  such  an  idea 
might  very  well  be  suggested  by  the  prevailing  northerly 
flow  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse,  corresponding  in 
direction  to  the  Saone  and  Rhone.  Thus  a  girdle  of 
communications  ran  across  the  continent,  well  marked 
off  both  from  the  convergence  of  the  French  water- 
ways upon  the  basin  of  Paris,  and  from  the  natural 
lines  of  traffic  that  accompany  the  Danube  and  the 
southern  border  of  the  great  lowlands.  The  Treaty  of 
Verdun,  in  843,  created  a  State,  Lotharingia,  reaching 
from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean  between  the 
above-mentioned  rivers  and  the  Alps.  Although  this 
State,  with  its  union  of  widely  divergent  races  and  tongues^ 
showed,  from  the  first  moment  of  its  creation,  no  hope 
of  long  endurance,  and  in  fact  fell  to  pieces  very 
quickly,  the  idea  of  it  awoke  again,  when,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  of  a  collateral  line  to 
,  that  of  Valois,  became  lords  of  the  Netherlands.  Their 
despotic  rule  succeeded  for  the  first  time  in  welding  into 
unity  the  territory,  hitherto  totally  disunited,  which  had 

fallen  piece  by  piece  into  their  hands.      Under  their  rule 

398 


THE   NETHERLANDS  299 

the  representatives  of  the  different  provinces  came  to- 
gether for  the  first  time  in  the  assembly  of  the  States- 
General,  and  soon  felt  themselves  a  power  ;  for  the  policy 
of  Charles  the  Bold  sought  its  greatest  support  in  the 
prosperity  of  these  provinces,  and  after  his  death,  his 
daughter,  becoming  altogether  dependent  on  their  help, 
was  obliged  to  give  them  in  the  Great  Privilege  (1477)  a 
large  measure  of  political  rights.  Her  grandson,  Charles 
the  Fifth,  completed,  in  1548,  the  severance  of  the  long- 
weakened  tie  between  the  seventeen  provinces  of  the 
Netherlands  and  the  German  Empire,  and  by  means  of 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  united  them  "  indivisibly  to  all 
eternity  "  to  the  lands  of  the  Spanish  throne.  Thus  these 
districts,  which  had  long  been  enriched  by  industrial 
activity,  and  had  become  the  point  of  departure  of  a  busy 
European  commerce,  were  drawn  into  the  trade  of  the 
wider  world  opened  up  by  the  discoveries  of  Spain.  This 
was  the  great  time  of  Antwerp.  Wealth  and  power  in  the 
Netherlands  had  their  centre  of  gravity  in  Brabant  and 
Flanders.  Their  prosperous  and  healthy  evolution  was  in- 
terrupted by  the  tyranny  of  Philip  the  Second,  and  by  the 
war  for  freedom  which  it  forced  upon  the  Netherlands.  This 
war  tore  the  Netherlands  into  two  territories  which  were 
thereafter  divided.  The  north,  sheltered  behind  rivers  and 
flooded  hollows,  preserved  its  Reformed  creed  and  its 
independence  ;  its  enterprising  towns  grew  up,  as  Venice 
once  did  in  the  shelter  of  its  lagoons,  to  be  leaders  in  the 
trade  of  the  world.  The  south,  however,  was  again  com- 
pelled to  bow  to  the  Spanish  yoke,  and,  excluded  by  the 
Dutch  from  trade  by  sea,  declined  speedily  from  its  con- 
dition of  prosperity,  especially  after  its  territory  had  been 
diminished  by  French  conquests  and  had  been  made  the 
theatre  of  repeated  battles.  The  respective  developments 
of  the  Free  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands  were  thus  too 
distinctly  different  for  it  to  be  possible  that  any  Congress 
of  Vienna  should  weld  them  once  more  into  a  single 
State.  The  year  1831  brought  their  division.  The 
kingdom  of  Holland  (12,740  square  miles;  5  millions  of 
inhabitants)  and  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  (11,370  square 


300 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


miles  ;  6|  millions)  subsist  side  by  side  as  political  and 
social  organisms,  having  very  different  foundations  of  life 
and  very  different  aims. 

There  is  surely  no  other  country  in  the  world  whose 
area,  productivity,  and  international  position  have  been 
so  decisively  affected  by  human  wisdom  and 
perseverance.  From  the  hand  of  nature  the 
Batavians  and  Frisians  received  but  a  poor,  unfriendly 
dwelling-place.  It  had  tracts  of  barely  raised  sand  and 
marsh,  dismal  heaths  with  scanty  trees,  often  inundated  in 
thfeir  low-lying  parts  by  wide  sluggish  rivers,  and  always 
threatened  by  the  tides  that  beat  upon  the  dunes  ;  its  soil 
was  unsteady  and  amphibious,  and  there  was  no  sub- 
stratum of  solid  rock.  The  dwellers  on  the  coast  engaged 
in  incessant  conflict  with  the  sea,  against  which  every  inch 
of  fertile  marsh-land  had  to  be  suspiciously  protected,  and 
from  whose  dangers  the  fisherman  had  to  wrest  his  gains, 
led  a  quiet  existence  shut  out  from  that  of  the  interior. 
To-day  the  richest  nation  of  Central  Europe  dwells  in 
magnificent  towns  upon  these  same  sites. 

The  marshes  upon  whose  pastures  milch-cows  graze, 
and  whose  fields,  cultivated  under  a  careful  system  of 
rotation  of  crops,  produce  abundant  harvests,  are  sheltered 
from  the  sea  and  from  the  artificially  regulated  network  of 
intersecting  rivers  and  canals  by  solid  dikes,  with  a 
perfect  arrangement  for  letting  off  the  water.  The  busy 
life,  radiating  from  the  great  centres  of  commerce, 
demands  for  its  subsistence  so  large  a  supply  of  all  rural 
products,  that  high  cultivation  becomes  remunerative  even 
in  the  remotest  regions  of  the  little  country,  and  enables 
a  population  much  larger  than  that  of  the  naturally 
similar  districts  in  East  Friesland  and  Oldenburg  to  live 
comfortably. 

The  kingdom,  however,  divides  into  several  districts, 
marked  by  considerable  economic  differences.  That  which 
is  most  completely  cut  off  is  the  north-eastern  part,  outside 
of  the  Rhine  basin  :  West  Friesland  up  to  the  Vecht.  The 
strongest  centre  of  genuine  Frieslanders  that  still  remains 
is  to  be  found  established  here.     Agriculture  and  cattle- 


THE  NETHERLANDS  301 

breeding  flourish  on  the  soil  cleared  from  the  barren 
covering  of  peat. 

The  "  geest "  country  on  the  south,  up  to  the  borders 
of  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Belgium,  is  intersected  by  the 
Meuse  and  by  the  arms  of  the  Rhine.  The  conditions  are 
not  very  favourable  to  agriculture,  and  the  animals  kept 
are  mostly  sheep.  Large  textile  industries  here  begin  to 
appear  in  many  places,  and  to  provide  a  living  for  part  of 
the  population.  The  most  important  towns  lie  at  crossing- 
places  of  the  rivers  :  thus,  Maestricht,  the  chief  town  of 
Limburg,  on  the  Meuse  between  Cologne  and  Antwerp, 
and  Arnheim  and  Nimeguen  respectively  at  the  first 
bridges  over  the  two  arms  into  which  the  Rhine  divides 
in  Holland  after  leaving  German  territory  at  the  busy 
border  town  of  Emmerich.  While  Nimeguen  marks  the 
end  of  the  diluvial  plateau  that  runs  northward  between 
the  Meuse  and  the  Rhine,  and  so  invites  the  road  running 
in  the  same  direction  to  cross  the  Waal  at  this  point, 
traffic  comes  to  the  high  right  bank  of  the  Lek  at  Arn- 
heim. Here  is  the  picturesque  raised  border  of  the  barren 
Veluwe,  the  dry  tableland  of  North  Gueldres,  situated 
between  the  Lek,  the  Yssel,  and  the  Zuyder  Zee. 

The  real  "  netherland,"  however,  the  country  sur- 
rounded by  the  thickest  complex  of  watercourses  and  cun- 
ningly protected  against  inundation,  the  seat  of  Holland's 
greatest  international  trade,  is  not  entered  until  we 
reach,  at  Utrecht,  the  first  of  the  four  marsh  provinces, 
which  comprise  but  27  per  cent,  of  the  area  and  50 
per  cent,  of  the  population  of  Holland.  Utrecht,  which 
is  raised  a  little  on  the  border  of  extensive  hollows,  was 
the  most  important  town  of  this  region  before  civilisation 
had  completely  subjugated  it.  Its  name  (Ultrajectum)  is 
a  reminder  that,  in  the  days  of  the  Romans,  the  main 
branch  of  the  Rhine  ran  by,  and  passing  Leyden,  reached 
the  sea  at  Katwijk.  This  branch  is  now  closed,  and 
Utrecht  is  only  joined  to  the  Zuyder  Zee  by  means  of  the 
Vecht.  But,  notwithstanding  this  change  in  the  water- 
ways, the  significance  of  Utrecht  is  not  altogether  a  thing 
of    the    past.     The   old   university   town,   with   its   many 


302  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

towers,  remains  a  centre  of  roads.  As  the  key  to  the 
entrances  both  of  South  and  North  Holland,  it  is  to-day, 
no  less  than  formerly,  distinctly  the  most  strategically 
important  point  in  the  country.  The  isthmus  between 
the  Zuyder  Zee  and  the  Lek,  over  which  Utrecht  mounts 
guard,  is  but  twenty  miles  wide,  and  the  passage  across  it 
is  impeded  by  watercourses  on  both  sides  of  the  town. 

Near  the  western  shore  the  dunes,  presenting  solid 
and  dry  soil,  clear  springs,  and  timber,  invited  settlers. 
'sGravenhage  was  a  hunting  castle  of  the  Counts  of 
Holland  among  the  woods  of  the  dunes.  Afterwards  it 
became  the  royal  residence  of  Holland,  the  Hague,  a 
town  on  dry  ground  without  piles  or  canals  {grachten), 
situated  amid  lovely  gardens  and  parks. 

Leyden  was  a  seaport  as  long  as  the  Old  Rhine  broke 
through  the  dunes  at  this  point.  In  later  days,  after  its 
recovery  from  the  severe  siege,  which  it  so  heroically  sus- 
tained, it  owed  a  world-wide  reputation  to  its  university, 
and  prosperity  to  its  flourishing  cloth-mills.  Its  decline 
in  the  eighteenth  century  was  immediately  followed  by 
a  diminution  of  population.  Haarlem  on  the  north  was 
clearly  destined  by  the  springs  of  the  dunes  to  carry 
on  brewing,  bleaching,  and  dyeing,  and,  in  spite  of  many 
fluctuations,  has  maintained  considerable  prosperity.  The 
horticulture  of  Holland,  too,  has  its  principal  seat  here. 

But  though  so  attractive  and  so  rich  in  intellectual 
wealth,  the  three  towns  of  the  dunes  have  remained 
far  behind  the  two  great  centres  of  Holland's  sea  trade, 
Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam.  At  the  south-west  corner  of 
the  Zuyder  Zee  there  was  a  considerable  creek  running 
westward  almost  to  the  dunes  of  the  coast — the  Ij  Here. 
When  the  Zuyder  Zee  was  broken  open  by  storms  and 
high  tides,  and  changed  from  an  inland  basin  into  a  great 
gulf  of  the  sea,  this  became  a  fine  natural  harbour. 
The  catastrophe  gave  a  place  in  international  trade  to 
Amsterdam,  a  little  town — built  on  artificial  foundations 
and  on  piles  driven  through  the  slush  into  firm  ground — 
on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Ij  and  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Amster,  a  shallow  and  sluggish  stream,  coming  north- 


THE   NETHERLANDS  303 

ward  from  the  country  to  the  west  of  Utrecht.  Amster- 
dam became  a  seaport,  and  was  for  a  time  affiliated 
to  the  German  Hanseatic  League.  Its  importance,  how- 
ever, remained  limited  until  the  war  for  liberty  drove 
citizens  of  Antwerp  and  other  towns  to  this  securely 
sheltered  spot.  Though  it  had  not  even  firm  ground  to 
stand  on,  the  town  grew  with  astounding  rapidity.  Here, 
in  1602,  arose  the  East  Indian  trading  company,  the 
leader  of  colonial  acquisitions  in  Malaysia.  About  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  Amsterdam  was  the 
greatest  trading  place  of  the  world,  and  kept  the  lead 
for  several  decades,  even  after  the  competition  of  England 
had  increased  into  open  enmity.  The  eighteenth  century 
brought  a  pause,  and  its  close  a  marked  decline  in 
trade,  wealth,  and  population.  Not  until  after  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  did  Amsterdam  begin  to  make 
progress  again,  and  this  progress  had  to  be  conquered 
by  laborious  struggles  with  the  natural  defects  of  the 
position,  which  were  gradually  becoming  more  and  more 
felt.  The  entrance  of  the  Ij  was  filled  up  with  sand, 
and  communication  with  the  Zuyder  Zee  became  more 
difficult.  The  whole  basin,  shallow  as  it  is,  was  no  satis- 
factory entering  place  for  the  enormous  vessels  of  modern 
days.  The  Venice  of  the  North  did  not,  however,  yield 
helplessly  to  being  cut  off  from  the  great  trade  of  the  sea. 
It  amazed  the  world  by  the  North  Holland  canal,  com- 
pleted in  1825,  which  runs  fifty  miles  northward  through 
the  marshes  as  far  as  Helder  on  the  strait  between  North 
Holland  and  Texel.  Not  satisfied  by  this  way,  the  Dutch 
in  1876,  in  westerly  direction,  opened  the  North  Sea 
Canal  in  the  dried-up  bed  of  the  Ij  and  across  the 
dunes.  The  continual  improvement  of  this  waterway 
is  still  being  carried  on.  On  the  other  hand  Amsterdam 
was  connected  with  the  districts  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhine  by  means  of  the  Merwede  canal,  completed  in 
1892,  which  gave  the  town  a  share  in  those  advantages 
that  had  so  much  favoured  the  progress  of  her  rival, 
Rotterdam.  The  vast  works  of  modern  water  engineer- 
ing have  given  Amsterdam  fresh  commercial  prosperity. 


304  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

The  staple  trade  of  the  place  is  in  Dutch  colonial 
produce,  but  it  also  receives  large  quantities  of  wheat, 
timber,  coal,  petroleum,  and  wine,  which  it  passes  on 
into  the  interior.  The  export  trade  deals  with  Dutch 
dairy  products  despatched  to  England,  and  more  largely 
with  commodities  from  the  German  hinterland. 

The  free  communication  with  the  hinterland  will 
always  give  Rotterdam  a  great  advantage  ;  the  town  itself 
lies  upon  the  north  bank  of  the  Lek,  but  a  branch  of  the 
Waal,  which  runs  in  higher  up,  makes  this  the  destination 
of  commerce  from  both  arms  of  the  Rhine.  It  is  true 
that  the  German  towns  of  the  Rhine  more  and  more 
send  their  own  vessels  to  foreign  shores.  The  traffic  of 
Rotterdam  is,  however,  constantly  increasing.  The  town 
shares  with  Antwerp  the  inestimable  advantage  of  lying 
directly  opposite  to  the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  and  is  in  the 
near  neighbourhood  of  the  Straits  of  Dover,  the  gate  of  in- 
ternational trade.  It  surpasses  Antwerp  by  lying  nearer  to 
the  sea,  and  having  behind  it  the  vast  basin  of  the  Rhine. 

The  leading  position  of  Rotterdam  is  assured  beyond 
all  question  by  the  manner  in  which  the  southern  part 
of  the  Rhine  delta  is  broken  up  into  a  number  of  islands, 
upon  which  only  places  of  limited  influence  could  arise. 
Only  the  most  south-westerly  island  of  the  archipelago 
of  Zealand,  Walcheren,  has  had  its  conditions  of  life 
altered  by  the  railway  that  links  it  with  North  Brabant. 
The  advantages  of  this  change,  however,  are  not  reaped 
by  Middelburg,  the  old  capital  of  Zealand,  which  lies  in 
the  centre  of  the  island,  but  by  Flushing,  the  excellent 
and  rising  harbour  on  its  southern  shore  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Scheldt.  This  is  an  important  starting-point  of 
passenger  traffic  with  England.  The  great  mart  of  trade, 
however,  has  lain  since  the  time  when  the  Dutch  ceased 
to  be  able  to  close  the  Scheldt,  not  here  on  the  projection 
of  the  mainland,  but  at  Antwerp,  the  innermost  point  of 
the  estuary  that  can  be  reached  by  sea  vessels.  The 
southern  bank  of  the  wide  estuary  also  belongs  to  Holland, 
and  so  does  Sluys,  on  the  other  side,  the  old  port  of 
Bruges. 


THE   NETHERLANDS  305 

While  the  natural  endowments  of  Holland  are  in  quite 
a  unique  degree  all  of  one  kind,  those  of  Belgium  are 
more  varied  in  character.  In  part  this  country 
recalls  the  conformation,  the  forms  of  settlement  ^lgium. 
and  of  labour,  of  the  Prussian  Rhine  province,  with  its 
poor  and  barren  mountain  country  and  its  thickly  peopled 
districts  of  industry.  Very  different  from  the  social  and 
political  life  of  Holland,  running  in  placid  grooves,  is  the 
struggle  of  nationalities  and  parties  by  which  the  politics 
of  Belgium  are  disturbed.  In  one  particular  only  is 
Belgium  the  more  closely  united,  and  that  is  in  religion. 
The  counter-reformation  here  achieved  a  complete  con- 
quest. The  country  is  as  Roman  Catholic  as  Spain  or 
Italy,  and  resembles  them  too  in  the  extremely  low  state 
of  public  education. 

The  poorest  part  of  the  country  is  the  south,  the 
Forest  of  Ardennes,  in  the  provinces  of  Luxemburg  and 
Namur.  Here  there  are  considerable  areas  in  which  the 
density  of  population  falls  below  100  to  the  square  mile. 
Between  the  lonely  farmsteads,  which  are  united  into  very 
large  communes,  lie  little  towns,  which  make  centres  of 
slight  communication  and  markets  for  the  products  of  the 
high  lying  and  not  very  profitable  land.  Of  the  valleys, 
whose  deep  and  winding  furrows  run  up  into  the  high- 
land, only  that  of  the  Meuse,  which  passes  quite  across, 
is  wide  enough  to  carry  a  considerable  roadway  as  well 
as  the  waterway. 

Namur  is  the  point  at  which  this  transverse  valley 
ends,  and  falls  into  the  important  longitudinal  cutting  of 
the  valley  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse. 

At  the  point  where  the  Meuse  changes  its  north- 
eastward for  a  northerly  direction,  and  where  four 
tongues  of  the  highland,  divided  by  three  tributaries,  send 
their  respective  roadways  down  to  the  crossing-place  of 
the  river,  Liege  arose  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  It  was 
the  first  place  upon  the  Continent  to  open  out  and  work 
its  coalfield.  Metal-work  was  one  of  the  main  branches 
of  industry,  even  in  the  mediaeval  city,  whose  prosperity 
was  destroyed  by  the  Burgundians.     Only  our  own  iron. 


3o6  CENTRAL  EUROPE 

age  gave  it  a  new  impulse.  Coal-mining  and  gun 
manufactories  are  the  principal  forms  of  industry  of 
this  great  town,  ,  and  of  its  ring  of  suburbs,  which 
extend  westwards  up  to  the  iron-foundries  of  Seraing, 
and  eastwards  in  a  loosely  linked  chain  as  far  as  the 
cloth-mills  of  the  frontier  town  of  Verviers.  North  of 
the  town  the  existence  of  a  rich  bed  of  lead  and  zinc 
ores  has  made  the  division  of  the  borderland  of  Altenberg 
(Moresnet)  so  difficult  that  the  district  is  held  in  common 
by  Belgium  and  Prussia,  and  forms  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  peculiarities  of  the  map  of  Europe.  The 
combination  of  the  Devonian  formation,  from  whose  strata 
the  iron  of  the  region  also  comes,  and  of  the  coal  measures, 
together  with  the  favourable  situation,  gives  so  dense  a 
population  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Liege  that  there  are 
more  than  400,000  inhabitants  in  120  square  miles.  The 
presence  at  the  extreme  limit  of  French-speaking  territory 
of  a  city  rich  in  historical  memories,  and  possessing  a 
university  and  a  technical  college,  gives  a  centre  of  culture 
to  this  region,  and  raises  it  above  that  of  Hainault,  which 
extends  for  forty  miles,  from  Charleroi  to  Mons  (Bergen). 
Here  again  an  area  of  about  190  square  miles  supports 
more  than  400,000  persons.  The  coal-mines,  which  are 
here  obliged  to  go  deeper  than  elsewhere,  and  penetrate 
more  than  5000  feet  into  the  earth  in  order  to  reach  the 
seams  that  lie  below  the  covering  cretaceous  formation, 
form  the  foundation  upon  which  iron-foundries,  glass- 
works both  for  blown  and  plate  glass,  and  a  number  of 
other  industries  have  been  raised.  The  thick  network  of 
railways  is  not  sufficient  for  the  vast  transport  of  goods. 
Canals  connect  Charleroi  with  Brussels,  and  Mons  with 
the  main  arteries  of  the  Scheldt  basin,  and  thus  both 
with  Antwerp  and  Northern  France. 

The  great  increase  of  population  in  these  industrial 
districts  of  South  Belgium,  due  in  part  to  immigration, 
has  tended  to  increase  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  share 
of  French  nationality  in  the  Belgian  state  without 
altering  the  local  boundary  of  the  tongues.  The  border- 
line   between    the    French    and    the    Flemish    languages 


THE   NETHERLANDS  307 

coincides  approximately  with  the  northern  border  of 
the  provinces  of  Hainault  and  Liege  towards  Flan- 
ders and  Limburg ;  but  in  the  south  of  Brabant  it 
extends  as  far  as  the  battlefield  of  Waterloo.  The 
French  portions  of  the  upper  town  of  Brussels,  together 
with  its  one  entirely  French  suburb  (Ixelles),  form  an 
enclave  of  French  speech  in  the  Flemish  country.  The 
social  conditions  are  here  very  different.  The  earth 
affords  no  mineral  wealth  upon  which  industries  native 
to  the  soil  could  arise.  Thus  the  population  of  Limburg, 
which  is  mostly  occupied  with  agriculture,  is  compara- 
tively thin,  and  does  not  collect  into  townships  of  any 
great  size.  In  Brabant  we  find  the  beginnings  of  the 
Belgian  textile  industry,  which  was  the  earliest  of  its 
kind  on  the  Continent,  and  which,  in  the  course  of  its 
famous  history,  has  dealt  with  every  attainable  material, 
and  reached  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  every  branch 
undertaken.  The  point,  however,  which  is  the  distin- 
guishing characteristic  of  Brabant  is  its  central  position 
in  the  interior  of  Belgium.  This  it  was  which  decided 
the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  in  their  choice  of  a  capital  for 
their  possessions  in  the  Netherlands.  At  the  expense  of 
Liege,  which  they  destroyed,  and  of  Bruges,  whose  inde- 
pendent spirit  resisted  them,  they  raised  into  prominence 
Brussels,  which  lies  between  these  towns.  Brussels, 
situated  between  the  sea  and  the  Meuse,  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Ardennes,  was  particularly  well  adapted 
to  become  a  centre  of  many  radiating  railway  lines.  It 
was  less  favourably  placed  in  the  matter  of  communi- 
cation by  water.  But  the  need  of  getting  coal  from  the 
Sambre  caused  a  canal  to  be  made  from  Charleroi.  On 
the  north,  the  Senne,  which  was  by  nature  only  large 
enough  for  little  boats,  marked  the  line  for  a  connection 
by  canal  with  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt.  The  old  inland 
town  will  be  practically  transformed  into  a  seaport. 

The  river  Scheldt  unites  the  waters  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  Belgian  lowland.  It  could  not  often  happen 
that  a  river  whose  source  hes  but  100  miles  from  its 
mouth,  while  the  lands  watered  by  it  do  not  much  exceed 


3o8  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

8000  square  miles,  should  be  of  such  great  service  to 
traffic.  The  river  system  of  the  Scheldt  shows  four 
approximately  parallel  rivers,  which  at  one  time  were 
perhaps  united  in  pairs.  The  Antwerp  mouth  clearly 
corresponds  to  the  eastern  pair  of  rivers,  the  Rupel 
(Senne)  and  the  Dender  ;  whilst  the  Braakman,  an 
inlet  of  the  shore  which  appears  to  be  an  extinct  mouth, 
corresponds  to  the  western  pair,  the  Scheldt  and  Lys 
(Leye),  which  meet  at  Ghent.  As  far  back,  however,  as 
we  have  any  trustworthy  historical  records,  the  course 
of  these  rivers  has  always  turned  eastward  from  Ghent  to 
join  the  other  rivers  on  the  east.  All  four  rivers  are 
navigable  nearly  to  their  sources,  and  are  connected  with 
French  waterways. 

The  tide  rises  in  the  Scheldt  as  far  as  the  lock-gates 
of  the  canalised  reach  at  Ghent.  Even  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  at  the  beginning  of  modern  times,  this  town 
had  a  shorter  connection  with  the  sea  by  means  of  canals 
that  ran  to  the  north  and  north-west,  and  at  the  present 
it  takes  a  direct  share  in  the  marine  trade  by  means 
of  an  artificial  waterway  to  Terneuzen.  At  the  opening 
of  the  modern  period,  Ghent  was  perhaps  the  greatest 
manufacturing  town  in  the  world.  Its  40,000  weavers 
were  the  nucleus  of  the  military  power  that  defended  its 
independence.  The  old  parts  of  the  town,  intersected  by 
canals  and  lying  between  the  Scheldt  and  the  Lys,  still 
show  the  character  of  that  period  of  prosperity.  It  came 
to  an  end  when  the  Netherlands  were  divided,  and  the 
southern  provinces  which  had  remained  under  the  do- 
minion of  Spain,  were  excluded  by  Holland  from  the  sea 
trade.  Its  ranks  were  then  thinned  by  the  emigration 
of  many  of  its  citizens.  Not  until  the  nineteenth  century 
did  new  life  return  with  the  cotton  trade.  The  industrial 
life  of  the  present  day,  contented  with  very  small  re- 
turns, is  in  strong  contrast  with  the  monuments  of  the 
past. 

The  old  towns  of  Bruges  and  Ypres,  seats  of  the  linen 
and  lace  trades,  retain  but  a  shadow  of  their  former  great- 
ness,    Bruges  was  the  first  place  in  the  Netherlands  that 


THE   NETHERLANDS  309 

attained  a  far-reaching  importance.  In  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  its  port  was  the  chief  seat  of  the 
Netherlands  trade  with  Western  Europe  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, as  well  as  with  England  and  the  Hanse  Towns. 
Here  flourished  the  earliest  manufacture  of  cloth,  whose 
wares  travelled  over  Germany  and  out  into  Sclavonic 
lands,  and  from  whose  example  other  nations  learned  the 
trade.  Of  the  pride  and  self-confidence  exhibited  by  the 
citizens  of  Bruges,  not  only  in  regard  to  their  commerce, 
but  also  in  regard  to  politics,  the  decline  of  the  city  has 
left  nothing  remaining.  Outstripped  by  Ghent  as  early  as 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  by  Antwerp  in  the  sixteenth, 
international  trade  gradually  abandoned  it,  as  its  com- 
munication with  the  sea  grew  worse,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  demands  of  sea-going  vessels  in  the  matter  of 
depth  and  space  of  water  were  rapidly  increasing.  None 
of  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  in  modern  times  to 
effect  a  practicable  sea  communication  have  so  far  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  fresh  life  to  the  place. 

This  retirement  of  the  trading  towns  of  Flanders  from 
the  maritime  commerce  which  they  once  carried  on, 
causes  it  to  be  completely  concentrated  in  Antwerp,  the 
most  important  of  Belgium's  ports.  The  reason  why 
this  harbour  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  although  it  dates 
back  to  the  early  Middle  Ages,  did  not  enter  into  compe- 
tition with  the  western  places  which  stood  far  ahead  of  it 
until  the  fifteenth  century,  and  why  it  so  suddenly  became 
their  superior,  is  to  be  found  in  an  advantageous  change  in 
its  relation  to  the  sea,  which  only  appeared  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Of  the  two  estuaries  of  the  Scheldt  which 
run  around  the  islands  of  Beveland  and  Walcheren,  only 
the  East  Scheldt  had,  up  to  that  time,  been  navigable  for 
sea-going  vessels — a  long  waterway  with  a  wide  curve 
towards  the  north.  It  was  owing  to  storms  and  high 
tides  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  the 
coasts  of  the  Netherlands  were  changed,  and  that  the 
West  Scheldt  and  the  Hond,  until  then  narrow  and 
shallow  entries,  so  widened  and  deepened  as  to  open  a 
shorter  way  from  the  sea  to  Antwerp.     The  full  advan- 


310  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

tages  of  this  improvement  came  into  play  when  the  Portu- 
guese discoveries  changed  the  old  course  of  eastern  trade, 
and  the  wares  of  India  came  to  Central  Europe,  no  longer 
by  way  of  Venice,  but  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Antwerp 
became  the  chief  seat  of  oriental  trade,  and  its  inclusion  in 
the  empire  of  Charles  V.  directed  to  it  also  the  stream  of 
goods  from  the  New  World,  The  pen  of  Guicciardini  has 
pictured  Antwerp  in  this  period  of  brilliance.  It  was  but 
short.  Its  submission  at  the  time  of  the  heroic  struggles 
for  freedom  was  of  bad  omen  for  Antwerp.  Shut  off  by 
the  Dutch  from  maritime  trade,  the  town  withered  away 
under  the  rule  of  the  Habsburgs,  until  at  the  dawn  of 
the  French  Revolution  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt  was  once 
more  opened  to  the  trade  of  the  city.  Great  docks  were 
built  by  Napoleon,  and  the  trade  by  sea  received  a  new 
impulse,  paving  the  way  for  further  commercial  pro- 
gress. A  hindrance,  indeed,  was  put  in  its  way  when 
Belgium  became  independent,  in  the  shape  of  Dutch 
duties,  levied  on  the  Scheldt  until  the  year  1863.  But 
the  progress  of  Antwerp  was  not  now  to  be  checked. 
It  is,  at  the  present  day,  the  largest  town  in  Belgium, 
a  seaport  with  a  wide  hinterland.  Among  tropical  pro- 
ducts india-rubber  predominates  so  largely,  since  the 
opening  up  of  the  Congo  State,  that  Antwerp  now 
does  perhaps  a  larger  trade  in  that  commodity  than 
any  other  town.  Internal  communication  is  served, 
not  only  by  a  railway  system  with  many  branches — 
the  lines  from  Paris  to  Amsterdam  and  from  Ostend 
to  Cologne  cross  here — but  also  by  an  abundance  of 
waterways. 

A  characteristic  to  be  noted  in  considering  the  relation 
of  Belgium  to  the  sea  is  the  weakness  of  its  own  mer- 
cantile marine,  about  one-tenth  of  that  of  Holland. 
Thus,  while  in  the  ports  of  Holland  the  national  flag 
still  holds  an  honourable  place,  second  only  to  that  of 
Britain,  and  in  Amsterdam  but  a  little  second  even  to 
that,  the  harbour  of  Antwerp  is  mainly  filled  by  foreign 
shipping. 

In  the  same   way   that   the  great   Dutch   ports   have 


THE  NETHERLANDS  311 

in  front  of  them,  as  outposts  for  passenger  traffic,  the  Hook 
of  Holland  and  Flushing,  so  Ostend  Hes  in  front  of  Ant- 
werp, and  the  steamers  plying  between  it  and  Dover 
convey  more  than  120,000  passengers  a  year.  This  mail 
line  gives  Ostend  the  second  place  among  the  ports  of 
Belgium,  ahead  even  of  Ghent.  Ostend  is  also  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Belgian  sea-fishery. 

The  North  Sea  is  the  theatre  of  the  common  activities 
of  the  fishing  fleets  belonging  to  all  the  surrounding 
nations.  Each  of  them  considers  that  a  certain  strip  of 
sea,  extending  three  sea  miles  outward,  measured  from 
the  low-water  mark  on  its  shores  and  from  a  straight 
line  drawn  so  as  to  connect  headland  with  headland  on 
each  side  of  bays  that  run  inland,  is  an  integral  part  of 
its  own  territories,  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  dwellers  on 
its  own  coasts.  Within  these  territorial  waters,  to  which 
belongs,  for  example,  the  whole  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  a 
fairly  rich  harvest  is  gathered  from  the  sea.  The  shallows 
of  the  sandbanks  that  are  exposed  by  the  low  tides 
retain,  behind  their  fences  or  in  their  remoter  hollows, 
small  fish  and  mussels  that  are  easily  collected.  The 
same  sandbanks  are  the  seat  of  an  oyster-fishery  and 
oyster  beds  of  considerable  importance,  yielding  valuable 
returns  both  on  the  western  coast  of  Schleswig  and  in  the 
Netherlands,  but  especially  in  the  province  of  Zealand. 
Fishing  with  draw-nets  and  with  the  line,  however,  is  also 
profitable  in  these  waters  close  to  the  coast. 

Fishing  in  the  open  sea  is  left  to  the  free  competition 
of  all  the  surrounding  nations.  But  as  among  the  diff^e- 
rent  methods  employed  trawling  interferes  with  drift-net 
fishing  and  with  line-fishing,  with  its  thousands  of  ground 
lines,  the  States  interested  agreed,  at  the  suggestion  of 
England,  to  a  series  of  police  rules,  ratified  by  a  conven- 
tion at  the  Hague  in  1882,  for  the  regulation  and  pro- 
tection of  their  fisheries  on  the  high  seas.  One  principal 
site  of  this  fishery  is  the  Dogger  Bank,  off  the  east  coast 
of  England.  Next  to  the  English,  who  supply  the  largest 
contingent  to  the  fishing  fleets  at  this  place,  the  Dutch 
take  the  chief  part,  that  of  Germany  and  Belgium  being 


312  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

much  smaller.  This  competition  in  the  fisheries  is  cer- 
tainly valuable  to  all  the  nations  concerned,  not  only  for 
the  sake  of  the  food-supply  thus  obtained,  but  as  a  school 
for  their  seamen. 


Note  on  Authorities. — The  most  authoritative  works  upon  Holland 
are  H.  Blink's  Nederland  en  syne  Bewoners,  "^voXs.,  1887-93  ;  and  Tegen- 
woordige  Stoat  von  Nederland,  1 897. 

A  general  account  of  Belgium,  the  joint-production  of  several  dis- 
tinguished men,  is  given  in  Patria  Belgica,  Encyclop^die  Nationals 
3  vols.,  1873-75- 


CHAPTER   XIX 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Central  Europe  is  not  so  fortunate  as  to  be  imme- 
diately surrounded  by  water,  but  is  enabled  to  take 
part  in  international  traffic  by  means  of  its  four 
seas  opening  in  different  directions.  The  importance  of 
these  depends  not  only  upon  their  size  and  the  nature 
of  their  junction  with  the  great  oceans  which  are  the 
arena  of  the  world's  commerce,  but  also  upon  the  degree 
to  which  they  penetrate  into  the  land,  and  admit  sea 
traffic  into  the  interior  of  the  Continent.  The  Adriatic 
hardly  allows  any  access  at  all.  Steep  shores  and 
rugged  mountains  arrest  the  course  of  sea-vessels  ;  the 
Narenta  alone  opens  to  them  her  sluggish  lower  reaches 
as  far  as  Metkovits.  Very  different  is  the  stretch  of 
country  opened  to  seafarers  by  the  navigability  of  the 
Lower  Danube  from  the  Black  Sea.  The  chief  har- 
bours upon  it  for  sea-ships  lie  nearly  loo  miles  inland, 
while  sea-going  vessels  of  the  smaller  kind  have  often 
ascended  nearly  to  the  Iron  Gates.  In  the  Baltic  there 
is  no  place  much  over  forty  miles  from  the  coast  which 
is  accessible  to  sea-going  ships.  The  full  oceanic  tide 
is  only  felt  by  Central  Europe  along  the  shores  of 
the  North  Sea,  but  the  head  of  th^  tideway  far  in- 
land does  not  mark  the  end  of  the  traffic.  Cologne 
(i8o  miles  from  the  sea)  is  the  farthest  point  upon  the 
Rhine  to  which  ships  from  the  sea  come  up  in  great 
number,  and  the  size  of  the  vessels  is  here  limited 
not  so  much  by  the  depth  of  the  river  (lo  feet),  which 
might  easily  be  doubled,  as  by  the  inadequacy  of  the 
Dutch  channel. 

There    is    hardly    another    spot   among    the    seas    of 


314  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Europe  to  be  compared  with  that  junction  of  traffic  at 
the  south-western  angle  of  the  North  Sea  where  the 
mouths  of  the  Thames,  the  Scheldt,  the  Meuse  and  the 
Rhine  converge,  near  to  the  entrance  of  the  English 
Channel.  Subordinate  only  to  this  is  the  south-eastern 
angle  of  the  same  sea.  Here  not  only  ends  the  largest 
river  system  of  the  North  German  lowland,  but  also 
opens  the  passage  to  another  sea,  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
Canal,  navigable  for  ships  of  the  largest  size,  making  a 
line  of  connection  between  Brunsbiittel  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe  and  the  port  of  Kiel.  This  canal  was  com- 
pleted in  the  years  between  1887  and  1895,  and  is  the 
greatest  achievement  of  modern  canal-building.  Of  its 
63  miles  of  length,  only  six  coincide  with  the  basins  of 
natural  lakes  ;  its  depth  is  30  feet,  its  width  72  feet  at 
the  bottom,  and  190  feet  at  the  water-level.  The  doubt 
whether  the  work  would  ever  repay  the  costs  of  its  con- 
struction caused  many  decades  to  go  by  before  it  was 
carried  out.  Although  the  new  free  port  of  Copenhagen 
keeps  for  the  Sound — as  was  to  be  expected — by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  traffic,  the  inlet  of  Kiel  has  also 
become  a  busy  exit  from  the  Baltic. 

For  heavy  ladings  such  as  go  by  sea,  internal  water- 
ways still  remain  very  useful.  The  Netherlands  for 
this  reason  possessed  a  vast  advantage  in  having  their 
country  intersected  by  a  network  of  rivers,  and  in  being 
easily  able  to  give  closer  meshes  to  the  net  by  means  of 
canals.  Even  if  we  disregard  smaller  ramifications,  the 
whole  length  of  navigable  waterways  in  Holland  amounts 
to  4875  miles.  Belgium,  with  1375  miles,  comes  next  in 
this  respect,  but  its  nature  made  the  cutting  of  artificial 
waterways  more  difficult.  These  two  countries,  the  com- 
bined navigable  watercourses  of  which  happen  to  amount 
to  just  one-fourth  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe,  fall  in 
this  particular  but  a  little  below  the  totality  of  the  German 
Empire,  which  has  8750  miles,  and  still  less  below  the 
great  territory  of  Austro-Hungary  with  7220  miles. 

Towards  the  interior  of  the  continent,  not  only  do  irre- 
gularities of  conformation  increase,  but  the  value  of  water- 


COMMUNICATIONS  315 

ways  is  limited  by  the  greater  severity  of  the  winter. 
In  laying  out  artificial  waterways  these  characteristics 
have  to  be  reckoned  with.  It  is  precisely,  however,  in 
extensive  inland  districts  where  distances  are  very  great 
that  the  cheapness  of  water  carriage  for  heavy  goods  is 
most  fully  felt.  Owing  to  this  cheapness  alone  it  be- 
comes possible  for  Upper  Silesia  to  smelt  Swedish  ores, 


■ — /Vgy/yaS/e  /f/i'ers,    Cana/s, Cana/s  Projected 

Fig.  38.— The  Waterways  of  Central  Europe. 

and  for  Mannheim  to  distribute  Roumanian  corn  over 
South  Germany.  The  farthest  internal  ports  of  Central 
Europe,  to  each  of  which  more  than  50,000  tons  of 
goods  are  annually  brought  up  by  natural  waterways,  are 
Strassburg,  Heilbronn,  Frankfort,  Dortmund,  Hameln, 
Prague,  Berlin,  Kosel,  Thorn,  Elbing,  Konigsberg,  Tilsit, 
and  in  the  Danube  basin  Ratisbon. 


3i6  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Along  that  section  of  the  Danube  which  follows  the 
southern  border  of  the  mountains  of  Central  Germany 
there  are  several  points  which  invite  the  opening  of 
transverse  waterways  across  the  principal  watershed  of 
Central  Europe.  The  idea  which  occupied  the  enter- 
prising mind  of  Charlemagne  has  been  carried  into  execu- 
tion between  Bamberg  and  Kelheim,  where  the  courses  of 
the  Regnitz  and  the  Altmiihl  have  been  connected  by 
means  of  the  Danube  and  Main  canal,  which  is  no 
miles  long  and  4  feet  deep,  and  crosses  the  watershed 
at  a  height  of  1440  feet.  Canals  from  the  Elbe  and  the 
Oder  to  the  Danube  are  projected  and  already  approved 
by  the  Austrian  Parliament.  The  opening  of  the  Danube 
and  Oder  canal  will  result  in  a  vast  interchange  of  com- 
modities between  the  industrial  districts  of  Upper  Silesia 
and  the  fruitful  plains  of  Moravia  and  Hungary,  For  the 
present,  however,  in  the  matter  of  water  communication  in 
Central  Europe  the  Mediterranean  basin  is  absolutely  and 
completely  divided  from  the  basin  of  the  Northern  Seas. 
For  in  the  same  way  that  the  Ludovic  Canal  between  the 
Danube  and  the  Main  must  be  reckoned  useless  for  com- 
munication on  a  large  scale,  so  the  Rhine  and  Rhone 
canal  between  Miilhausen  and  Montbeliard  has  ceased 
since  the  restoration  of  Alsace  to  Germany  to  carry  more 
than  an  insignificant  traffic. 

The  great  activity  of  Germany  in  the  improvement 
of  waterways  has  been  confined  to  the  connection  of 
neighbouring  river  systems  running  in  the  same  direction 
upon  the  northern  slope.  Even  in  this  department  much 
remains  to  be  done.  While  on  the  east  of  the  Elbe  a 
twofold  communication  with  the  Oder  exists,  and  a 
single  one  to  the  Vistula,  there  is  an  absence  on  the 
west  of  any  transverse  communication  between  the  Elbe 
and  the  Rhine.  The  Prussian  diet  has  recently  rejected 
the  Government  proposal  to  construct  two  canals  by 
which  the  lately  completed  waterway  from  Dortmund  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Ems  would  be  connected  on  the  east 
with  the  Elbe  at  Magdeburg  and  on  the  west  with  the 
Rhine.     The  plan  has  doubtless  not  been  definitely  laid 


COMMUNICATIONS 


317 


aside.  It  will  revive,  for  prosperous  districts  with  a  great 
future  before  them  demand  its  execution,  and  are  ready 
to  make  sacrifices  for  it. 

The  interest  in  the  care  of  water  communications, 
which  has  been  so  marked  during  the  last  twenty  or  thirty 
years,  was  called  forth  by  the  great  interchange  of  com- 
modities due  to  increased  economic  activity.  Railways 
alone  no  longer  seemed  to  be  sufficient,  in  spite  of  the 
unquestionable  advantages  which  had  secured  to  them  the 
first  rank  in  methods  of  communication.  They  are  less 
dependent  upon  climate  and  upon  the  configuration  of  the 
country  ;  freer  in  their  choice  of  route,  and  therefore 
better  adapted  to  meet  most  of  the  needs  of  traffic.  The 
railway  system  of  the  Central  European  States  extends  to 
63,000  miles,  but  the  closeness  of  its  web  varies  enor- 
mously. While  the  whistle  of  a  locomotive  has  never  yet 
echoed  through  the  mountains  of  Montenegro,  and  in 
Servia  and  Bulgaria  there  are  but  i|  miles  of  railway 
line  to  100  square  miles  of  country,  the  same  area  is 
traversed  in  Saxony  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  by 
32  miles,  and  in  the  coal  basin  of  the  Ruhr  by  as  many 
as  55  miles. 

As  the  railways  had  to  replace  the  old  highways, 
they  often  followed  the  track  of  these,  but  the  rapidity  of 
their  steam-progress  allowed  them  to  choose  the  easier 
country,  even  when  this  involved  a  considerable  detour. 
Where  the  larger  mountain-chains  rise,  main  lines  run 
along  their  edges.  The  most  conspicuous  example  is  the 
way  in  which  the  line  between  Marseilles,  Geneva,  Vienna, 
Cracow,  and  Odessa,  both  termini  of  which  might  be 
reached  from  Vienna  in  some  thirty-six  hours,  makes  a 
curve  to  follow  the  long  folded  mountains.  In  the  great 
lowlands  the  railways  develop  freely,  guided  rather  by 
their  distant  destinations  than  by  the  slight  irregularities 
of  the  ground,  and  forming  junctions  chosen  quite  arbi- 
trarily. Less  numerous,  and  more  carefully  selected  and 
laboriously  prepared  are  the  ways  by  which  railway  com- 
munication penetrates  into  the  mountains.  By  preference 
it  follows  the  long  lines  of  valley  that  keep  one  direction, 


3i8  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

like  those  of  the  Rhone  and  Rhine,  or  the  longitudinal 
valleys  which  in  the  Eastern  Alps  divide  the  central  zones 
from  the  Limestone  Alps  on  the  north  and  south,  or, 
again,  like  the  curve  of  the  Waag  and  the  furrow  of  the 
Servian  Morava. 

Of  those  railways  which  follow  the  same  direction 
as  the  Eastern  Alps  and  pass  through  the  longitudinal 
valleys,  the  line  from  Vienna  to  Bregenz,  which  runs 
between  Tyrol  and  the  Vorarlberg  and  is  important  for 
the  connection  of  the  Austrian  Alpine  districts,  has  the 
hardest  task,  for  it  must  pass  beneath  the  mighty  barrier 
of  the  Arlberg  by  means  of  a  tunnel  6.4  miles  long.  The 
difficulties  of  construction  were  as  great  as  on  transversal 
lines  crossing  the  Alps. 

It  is  not  often  possible  to  carry  the  line  over  an 
Alpine  pass,  and  the  boring  of  a  tunnel  is  the  plan  gene- 
rally adopted.  Even  then  it  has  to  be  decided  whether  a 
short  tunnel  shall  be  pushed  through  the  upper  part  of 
the  main  ridge,  and  an  open  railway,  struggling  to 
defend  itself  against  the  snowstorms  of  winter,  shall  rise 
into  the  valley  head,  or  whether  the  difficulty  of  this 
shall  be  evaded  by  the  boring  of  a  very  long  tunnel,  so 
that  the  train  may  remain  in  the  gentler  climate  of  the 
lower  levels.  The  second  method  has  generally  been 
preferred,  notwithstanding  the  increased  cost  of  a  very 
long  tunnel.  The  task  was  first  undertaken  by  engineer- 
ing science  when  the  railway  was  built  which  was  to 
replace  the  old  crossing  of  the  Alps  from  Savoy  to  Pied- 
mont at  the  Mont  Cenis,  by  a  tunnel  7.6  miles  long  be- 
neath the  Col  de  Frejus,  fourteen  miles  farther  to  the 
west.  The  work,  begun  in  1857  by  the  kingdom  of 
Sardinia  alone,  was  completed,  with  the  assistance  of 
France,   in    1871. 

This  line  of  communication  between  Lyons  and 
Turin  is  soon  to  be  supplemented  by  a  line  of  more  value 
to  Paris  from  Geneva  to  Milan.  The  piercing  of  the 
Mont  Blanc  group  was  for  some  time  under  consideration 
in  connection  with  this  scheme,  but  it  was  finally  decided 
to  carry   a   tunnel   of    12.3    miles   through   the   Simplon. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


319 


The  completion  of  this  tunnel,  the  longest  yet  constructed, 
is  expected  to  occupy  eight  years,  and  the  engineers  en- 
gaged upon  it  expect  to  find  the  temperature  in  the  heart 
of  the  mountain  rise  to  about  104°  F.  The  great  length 
of  this  tunnel  will  ensure  favourable  conditions  of  climate 


Fig.   39.— Loop  Tunnels  of  St.  Gothard.     Approach  to  the  Great  Tunnel 
from  the  North. 

at  the  exits,  which  are  placed  as  low  as  2100  and  2200 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  most  important  previous  tunnel  was  that  which, 
since  the  year  1882,  has  connected  Goschenen  in  the 
Reuss  valley  with  Airolo  on  the  Ticino.  It  is  nine  miles 
long,  passes  not  only  under  the  watershed  of  the  St. 
Gothard    ridge,    but   also  under   the   upper    part    of    the 


Fig.   39A. — Loop  Tunnels  of  St.  Gothard.     Approach  to  the  Great  Tunnel 
from  the  South. 


Reuss  valley,  and  forms  the  shortest  way  from  Zurich  to 
Milan,  and  so  from  the  whole  of  West  Germany  to  North 
Italy.  This  great  work,  which  is  of  incomparable  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  railway  engineering,  re- 
quired other  difficult  constructions  in  the  neighbouring 
valleys,  in  particular  spiral  tunnels,  which   were   obliged 


320  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

to  describe  a  wide  curve  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains 
in  order  to  overcome  the  difference  in  the  level  of  their 
exits,  which  lie  very  near  together,  but  above  and  below 
each  other.  The  St.  Gothard  Raihvay  revives  the  direct 
communication  with  Italy,  and  makes  Genoa  a  port  for 
West  Germany.  For  these  reasons  Italy  and  Germany 
contributed  largely  to  the  cost  of  its  construction, 
although  the  whole  of  the  line  belongs  to  the  Swiss  terri- 
tory. 

The  direct  line  of  the  St.  Gothard  railway,  running 
at  right  angles  to  the  ridge  of  the  Alps,  will  always  give 
it  an  advantage  over  the  Simplon  railway,  which  runs 
in  a  diagonal  line  through  the  mountains,  so  as  to 
join  the  longitudinal  valley  of  the  Rhone.  It  will  have 
the  same  advantage  over  the  schemes  which  at  present 
are  but  talked  of,  that  would  take  two  lines  obliquely 
across  the  Rh?etian  Alps,  the  one  continuing  the  Albula 
line,  already  building,  through  the  Ofenberg  to  Mais, 
and  the  other  from  Partenkirchen  to  Chiavenna,  through 
the  Fern  Pass  and  Maloggia.  Tirol,  since  1867,  has 
been  crossed  by  the  Brenner  line,  which  rises  slowly 
along  slipping  slopes  to  the  top  of  the  pass.  As  the 
long-desired  tunnel  under  the  Tauern,  to  connect  Salz- 
burg with  Carinthia,  is  to-day  only  in  construction,  the 
outermost  eastern  wing  of  the  Alps  must  for  the  pre- 
sent content  itself  with  two  railways,  the  Pontebba  line 
(from  Vienna  to  Venice)  and  the  so-called  Southern  line 
(from  Vienna  to  Trieste),  both  of  which  cross  the  principal 
watershed  at  low-lying  saddles,  and  find  their  chief  diffi- 
culties more  to  the  north,  the  one  in  the  gorge  of  the 
Enns,  the  so-called  "Gesause,"  and  the  other  at  the 
Semmering.  To  the  tunnel  beneath  the  latter  pass  the 
line  rises  from  Lower  Austria  with  many  much-admired 
contrivances  of  tunnels  and  viaducts. 

To  the  six  railways  which  cross  the  Alps  must  be 
added  those  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  which  in- 
tersect the  mountains  from  Agram  to  Fiume,  and  from 
Sarajevo  to  Mostar.  In  the  case  of  the  latter  the  tunnel 
under  St.  Ivan's    pass    presented    fewer    difficulties    than 


COMMUNICATIONS  321 

did  the  passage  through  the  terrible  mountain  gorges  of 
the  Narenta,  which  had  never  before  been  traversed  by 
a  road.  The  closeness  of  the  Carpathian  chains,  too, 
gave  to  the  bold  lines  connecting  Buda-Pest  with  Oderberg, 
Tarnov,  Przemsyl,  Lemberg,  Czernowitz  and  Bucharest  a 
picturesqueness  of  surroundings  that  is  often  comparable 
with  those  of  the  mountain  lines  in  the  Alps. 

The  fact  that  even  the  highest  and  most  difficult 
mountains  of  Central  Europe  have  railways  running 
through  them,  while  immediately  beyond  its  borders 
in  the  Russian  empire  lie  stretches  of  flat,  easy,  and 
singularly  fruitful  country  where  lines  of  railway  are  few 
and  far  apart,  marks  the  sharpness  with  which  the  border- 
line on  the  east  of  Central  Europe  divides  one  civilisation 
from  another. 

To  compare  the  rapidity  of  different  railway  systems 
is  not  very  easy.  Only  to  stretches  of  approximately 
similar  length  can  the  same  standards  be  applied  ;  hind- 
rances increase  wdth  distance.  Nor  must  the  delaymg 
influence  of  foreign  customs  boundaries  be  forgotten ; 
in  Central  Europe,  so  politically  broken  up,  these 
sometimes  play  a  greater  part  than  does  the  difference 
between  flat  and  mountainous  country.  If  we  are 
to  distinguish  the  maximum  achievements  of  different 
countries,  the  first  place  must  unquestionably  be  accorded 
to  the  "flying  Scotsman,"  which  does  the  395  miles 
between  London  and  Edinburgh  in  465  minutes,  thus 
attaining  a  speed  of  51  miles  an  hour.  Even  on  the 
much  shorter  runs  from  Berlin  to  Hamburg,  from  Berlin 
to  Breslau,  and  from  Vienna  to  Budapest  the  high 
speeds  of  49.4,  44.0,  and  43.2  miles  are  considerably 
below  this.  On  longer  distances,  comparable  with  that 
between  the  British  capitals,  the  speed  per  hour  of  the 
quickest  trains  on  the  German  main  lines  is  about  40 
miles,  and  in  Austria  about  38  miles.  The  trains  of 
Central  Europe,  with  these  rates,  are  equal  with  those  of 
France,  and  considerably  ahead  of  those  of  other  Con- 
tinental countries.  Isochronic  maps  showing  the  dis- 
tances   reached   in   every  direction   in   equal  times  serve 


322 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


very  well  to  bring  out  for  different  centres  of  traffic  the 
speed  of  their  communications.  That  of  Berlin  gives  an 
instructive  example. 

A  casual  glance  at  the  network  of  railway  lines 
might  give  the  impression  that  man  had  now  become 
completely  master  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  that 
all  parts  of  it  were  equally  covered  by  the  web  of  iron 


S  —  'O   ftowj 


Fig.  40. — Showing  Lines  of  Equal  Time  Distance  by  Express  Train  from 
Berlin.     (After  Mary  Krauske. ) 


threads.  But  as  we  make  a  closer  inspection  and  dis- 
tinguish more  clearly  the  value  of  the  different  lines,  we 
soon  perceive  that  the  old  main  lines  of  direction  marked 
out  by  nature  as  channels  of  communication  have  not  lost 
their  importance.  It  is  evident  that  so  long  as  man  does 
not  succeed  in  making  the  atmosphere  serve  as  his 
medium  of  travel,  so  long  as  human  intercourse  has 
to  cling  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  to  remain  ex- 


COMMUNICATIONS  323 

posed  to  its  friction,  the  map  of  communications  will 
show  geographical  features,  and  will  never  cast  off  a 
certain  dependence  upon  the  conformation  of  the  country. 
This  is  the  more  certain  because  the  positions  of  the 
principal  centres  are  not  arbitrary,  but  mostly  determined 
by  the  distribution  of  mountains  over  the  land,  and  by 
the  way  in  which  the  surface  is  divided.  Such  centres 
arise  at  the  line  of  division  between  traffic  by  water  and 
traffic  by  land,  generally  at  the  point  inland  which  cannot 
be  passed  by  vessels  from  the  sea  ;  for  example,  on  the 
steep  coasts  at  the  inner  corner  of  the  gulfs  of  Genoa, 
Trieste,  and  Fiume,  or  on  the  shallow  banks  of  the 
lower  parts  of  the  great  rivers.  In  the  interior,  foci  of 
communication  arise  at  points  that  form  natural  centres 
of  countries  and  districts  shut  off  from  their  surround- 
ings, either  on  every  side,  like  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  or 
at  least  on  several  sides,  like  the  inlets  of  the  lowland  at 
Cologne,  Leipzig,  and  Breslau.  In  addition  to  these, 
places  at  which  great  well-marked  natural  lines  of  com- 
munication cross  are  sure  to  become  of  special  import- 
ance, and  so  are  those  at  the  entrance  to  narrow  and 
busy  passage  ways.  The  most  striking  examples  of  this 
kind  are  Vienna  and  Frankfort -Mayence,  but  Basle, 
Geneva,  Graz,  Belgrade,  and  Sofia  are  also  instances. 
Spacious  plains  offer  a  larger  choice  of  situation  for  such 
centres  ;  the  choice  of  junctions  so  important  as  Berlin 
and  Munich  has  been  decided  by  historical  developments 
that  partly  depended  upon  chance.  A  special  group  is 
formed  by  centres  of  population  to  which  mineral  trea- 
sures give  an  independent  productive  power  of  their  own. 
As  an  artesian  well  bored  in  a  desert  will  create  an  oasis, 
so  the  discovery  of  mineral  treasures  that  long  lay  un- 
suspected under  a  tract  of  country  will  raise  it  in  a  few 
decades  to  life  and  activity,  while  wealth  arises  kom  un- 
numbered shafts  to  bless  the  inhabitants.  All  the  great 
mining  districts  of  Central  Europe  exhibit  this  spectacle, 
but  in  none  is  there  a  more  striking  example  of  the  differ- 
ence between  past  and  present  than  in  Upper  Silesia.     In 


324  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

all  these  cases  new  centres  arise  which  throw  into  the 
shade  the  old  capitals  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  net 
of  old  trading  road.s  disappears  beneath  the  thicker  web  of 
modern  communications. 

The  electric  lines,  by  which  thought  travels,  are  freer 
from  local  necessities.  Central  Europe  is  covered  by  a 
network  of  telegraph  wires  whose  total  length  amounts  to 
600,000  miles,  and  these  have  been  further  and  usefully 
supplemented  during  the  last  few  years  by  telephone  lines 
to  about  two-thirds  that  length.  The  conversations  carried 
along  these  telephonic  channels  are  certainly  not  less 
than  1000  millions  in  a  year,  and  have  greatly  assisted  to 
accelerate  and  intensify  commercial  activity.  Nothing 
can  more  effectually  strengthen  the  power  of  great  com- 
mercial and  industrial  centres  than  the  rapidity  with 
which  a  word  uttered  in  Berlin  can  be  heard  in  Copen- 
hagen, Bordeaux,  or  Budapest.  It  seems  as  if  the  human 
voice,  the  most  direct  expression  of  human  will,  were  no 
longer  subject  to  the  bounds  of  space. 

The  electric  current  gives  to  the  whole  civilised  world 
of  our  day  a  common  life  of  thought  and  emotion,  as  if 
the  whole  were  but  one  single  great  organism.  Even 
in  the  depths  of  the  ocean  the  cables  carry  their  messages 
from  shore  to  shore.  The  British  Isles  are  the  centre  of 
this  trans-oceanic  intercourse  of  thought.  English  enter- 
prise and  capital  have  enriched  most  parts  of  the  world 
with  this  new  means  of  mutual  comprehension.  It  is 
natural,  however,  that  the  various  countries  should  seek 
gradually  to  emancipate  themselves  from  a  monopoly  of 
this  means  of  communication.  Central  Europe  has  al- 
ready made  the  first  steps.  Emden,  the  point  from  which 
the  German  cable  starts  for  England,  now  has  direct 
communication  with  Spain  (Vigo),  and  with  the  United 
States. 

Note  on  Authorities. — No  up-to-date  geography  of  European  traffic 
exists. 

Ample  material  lies  scattered  in  different  technical  journals  which 
seldom  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  geographer. 


COMMUNICATIONS  325 

For  an  elucidation  of  Fig.  40,  which  is  taken  from  the  Festschrift  des 
Geographischen  Seminars  der  Universitdt  Breslau,  1901,  the  reader  may 
be  referred  to  Francis  Galton.  He  was  the  first  to  suggest  the  con- 
struction of  "  Isochronic  Passage-charts"  (^Report  of  the  ^th  Meeting  of 
the  British  Association,  1881.  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  N.S.,  iii.,  1881),  and  to  draw  them  up  for  London. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  NATIONAL  DEFENCE 

Central  Europe  is  full,  at  the  present  day,  of  a  rich  and 
civilised  life.  It  has  blossomed  in  the  sunshine  of  peace, 
and  only  under  this  star  can  go  on  prospering  un- 
disturbed.' But  a  love  of  peace  on  the  part  of  the 
populations  who  inhabit  it  is  not  all  that  is  necessary. 
Central  Europe  has  been  the  battlefield  of  foreign  peoples, 
the  object  and  the  prey  of  conquering  neighbours, 
and  can  never  forget  that  constant  thought  and  con- 
stant labour  are  necessary  in  order  to  be  ever  ready 
in  defence  of  its  soil  and  its  industry.  There  is  no 
other  part  of  Europe  whose  position,  in  case  a  fresh 
military  period  were  to  set  the  world  in  flames,  would  be 
so  much  threatened  as  would  that  of  Central  Europe. 
Who  can  dare  to  say  that  such  dangers  as  were  under- 
gone by  Ferdinand  the  Second  and  Frederick  the  Second 
may  -not  once  more  befall  the  powers  of  Central  Europe  ? 
Would  they  be  strong  enough  if  the  cry  "  Enemies  all 
around "  were  once  more  to  compel  them  to  lay  their 
hands  to  the  sword  ?  In  answering  this  serious  question 
geographical  facts  take  a  decisive  part,  and  invite  us  to 
survey  the  means  of  defence  along  the  frontiers. 

The  western  border  of  Central  Europe  is  that  which 
has  undergone  most  variation  during  recent  centuries, 
and  has  been  the  subject  of  most  recent  conflict.  Here, 
even  in  the  present  day,  is  the  most  serious  point  of 
tension.  In  opposition  to  the  French  efforts  at  expan- 
sion, which  at  one  time  succeeded  in  setting  back  this 
frontier  as  far  as  the  Baltic,  the  European  Powers  took 
measures,  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in    1815,  to  protect 

Germany,"  which,  owing  to  its  divisions,  was  at  that  time 

326 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL   DEFENCE      327 

weaker  than  it  is  now.  Switzerland  and  the  kingdom  of 
the  United  Netherlands  were  created  as  buffer  states. 
The  neutrality  secured  to  these  was  also  promised  in 
1832  to  the  newly  formed  kingdom  of  Belgium.  The 
value  of  this  protection  on  both  flanks  of  the  western 
frontier  of  Germany  does  not  depend  solely  upon  the 
security  of  international  agreement  and  the  doubtful 
readiness  of  the  guarantors  to  protect  this  neutrality  by 
force  of  arms.  The  neutral  states  themselves  have  shown, 
by  the  measures  of  self-defence  which  they  have  under- 
taken, that  they  are  not  disposed  to  let  themselves  be 
involved  without  resistance  in  the  quarrels  of  their  neigh- 
bours. It  remains,  however,  somewhat  uncertain  whether 
they  would  have  resolution  enough  to  throw  their  defen- 
sive power  quickly  and  emphatically  into  the  balance 
against  the  invader  of  their  neutrality. 

This  is  all  the  more  doubtful,  because  the  temptation 
not  to  respect  neutral  territory  only  arises  when  a  strong 
militant  power  has  already  obtained  considerable  advan- 
tages and  its  superiority  begins  to  be  decisive.  As  long 
as  both  adversaries  face  each  other  in  the  fulness  of  their 
power,  neither  could  venture,  unpunished,  to  turn  the 
flank  of  the  other  by  crossing  a  narrow  strip  of  neigh- 
bouring neutral  country.  But  when  the  strength  of  the 
two  parties  begins  to  be  unequal,  the  stronger  may 
attempt  by  thus  reaching  across  to  hasten  the  final 
decision,  and  to  protect  itself  against  reverses.  In  any 
case,  it  is  obvious  that  Germany  could  never  have  any- 
thing to  gain  by  taking  this  course.  Aix-la-Chapelle 
lies  264  miles  distant  from  Paris  and  Metz  200  miles, 
and  the  way  through  the  fortresses  of  the  Sambre  to 
Paris  is  not  easier  for  a  German  attacking  army  than  that 
by  way  of  Verdun.  Nor  could  a  march  through  Switzer- 
land give  any  greater  advantage  to  German  troops.  Why 
should  they  expose  themselves  to  the  difficulties  and 
dangers  of  crossing  the  Swiss  Rhine  country  and  the 
Jura,  when  beyond  these  great  obstacles  they  would  still 
find  themselves  confronted  by  the  same  French  fortifica- 
tions that  directly  touch  German  territory  at  the  gate  of 


328 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


Belfort  ?  Nor  could  an  alliance  with  Italy  ever  lead 
Germany  into  the  error  of  taking  an  army  to  be  useless 
in  the  blind  alley  of  Switzerland,  shut  in  by  the  Jura. 
It  would  be  madness  to  purchase  a  co-operation  with 
Italy  on  Swiss  ground  by  an  invasion  of  Switzerland, 
for  an  expedition  north  of  the  Alps  would  demand  far 
greater  powers  than  Italy  could  ever  spare  from  her  home 
defences. 


Fig.  41. — The  Strongholds  for  the  Defence  of  Central  Europe 


With  France  the  case  is  different.  If  the  defensive 
power  of  Germany  should  be  diminished  along  the  Rhine, 
either  by  reverses  or  by  the  requirements  of  some  war  at 
a  distance,  France  might  hope,  by  advancing  through 
Belgium,  to  enter  Germany  at  the  less  protected  northern 
end  of  the  west  frontier,  to  combine  operations  with  its 
own  navy,  and  in  case  of  a  simultaneous  attack  from 
Russia,  to  strike  the  severest  blow  at  the  enemy,  who  would 
lie  between  two  hostile  forces.  Or  if  the  German  army 
of  the  Rhine  were  weakened  and  obliged  to  confine  itself 
to  defending  the  fortifications,  the  advance  of    a  French 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL   DEFENCE      329 

army  through  North  Switzerland  into  the  heart  of  South 
Germany  might  be  even  more  tempting.  These  are  the 
possibilities  which  the  neutral  states  have  seriously  to 
keep  in  mind  in  the  preparations  for  the  defence  of  their 
neutrality.  The  defensive  preparations  of  Switzerland,  at 
any  rate,  seem  to  be  guided  by  quite  other  views,  and  to 
propose  a  resistance  in  the  inmost  parts  of  the  terri- 
tory. Immense  sums  are  being  expended  upon  the  forts 
that  surround  the  St.  Gothard,  and  are  turning  the 
Urserenthal  and  the  cross  roads  of  Andermatt  into  a  vast 
fortified  camp.  The  entry  to  the  great  longitudinal  inner 
Alpine  valley  is  closed  at  the  western  end  of  Valais  by  the 
forts  of  Bourg  St.  Maurice,  and  the  Rhine  valley  on  the 
east  is  secured  near  Ragatz  by  the  fortress  of  the  Lucien- 
steig.  The  passes  of  the  Jura,  the  defence  of  which  is 
rendered  more  difficult  by  the  fact  that  French  territory 
extends  to  near  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  are  thought  to  be 
sufficiently  closed  by  means  of  mines.  A  French  attack- 
ing army,  coming  along  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Jura, 
could  best  be  resisted,  in  the  first  place,  at  the  strong 
position  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Limmat  and  the  Aar. 
The  whole  result,  however,  would  depend  upon  the  atti- 
tude taken  by  the  Swiss  military  forces.  If  they  were 
content  to  observe,  events  would  sweep  over  their  heads. 
The  whole  salvation  of  Switzerland  would  depend  upon  its 
making  a  firm  stand  for  the  complete  inviolability  of  its 
territory. 

While  that  country  has  natural  defences  against  the 
foreign  invader  in  its  mountains,  its  rapid  and  abundant 
rivers,  and  its  broad  lakes,  the  natural  position  of  Belgium 
is  not  so  secure.  Its  territory  is  intersected  by  the  military 
road  along  the  Sambre  and  the  Meuse  that  has  been  used 
in  so  many  wars.  In  any  conflict  between  the  two  ad- 
joining powers,  the  shortest  line  between  the  objectives  of 
the  operations  on  both  sides,  Paris  and  Berlin,  would  pass 
along  it,  and  would  lead  through  rich  highly  cultivated 
country,  offering  relatively  little  natural  hindrance.  It  is, 
therefore,  of  extreme  importance  that  Belgium  has  not, 
like  Switzerland,  contented  itself  with  preparing  a  refuge 


330  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

for  its  military  power,  as  far  as  possible  from  the  border, 
but  has  closed  the  line  of  the  Meuse  at  the  very  frontier 
by  the  great  fortified  places  of  Liege  and  Namur,  which 
bar  the  way  against  both  Powers.  The  chief  strength  of 
Belgium  would  not,  however,  be  stationed  here,  but  would 
be  collected  in  a  great  fortress  lying  aside  from  this 
line — Antwerp.  This  position  offers  the  advantage  of 
being  protected  on  the  south  by  the  line  of  water  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  rivers  Nethe,  Rupel,  and  Scheldt. 
Beyond  these  rivers,  the  most  important  crossing-places 
of  which  are  fortified,  lies  the  circle,  nine  miles  in  diameter, 
of  Antwerp's  fourteen  new  forts,  which  have  quite  altered 
the  character  of  an  old  fortified  place  that  used  to  depend 
upon  a  ring  of  waters.  The  forts  are  especially  strong 
towards  the  sea.  It  is  obvious  that  the  choice  of  this  spot 
— which  indeed  is  by  nature  well  adapted  for  defence — 
has  been  in  part  decided  by  the  hope  of  help  from  with- 
out. And  indeed  England's  policy  could  never  suffer  any 
of  the  great  Continental  Powers  to  gain  a  firm  foothold 
exactly  opposite  to  the  Thames,  and,  as  Pitt  expressed  it, 
"to  hold  a  pistol  to  England's  breast." 

The  example  of  this  strong  fortification  of  the  environs 
of  Antwerp  may  have  contributed  to  make  Holland  pre- 
pare its  national  defences  with  so  much  insight  and 
caution.  As  in  former  centuries,  the  strength  of  Hol- 
land still  lies  in  the  great  expanse  of  country  that  can 
be  flooded.  This  protection  is  only  lost  in  very  severe 
winters,  such  as  that  of  1794-95.  The  *'new  water-line" 
from  the  Zuyder  Zee  to  the  Lek,  protected  by  Utrecht  and 
a  number  of  smaller  fortifications,  is,  together  with  its 
continuation  to  the  junction  of  the  Meuse  and  Waal, 
Holland's  principal  line  of  defence  towards  the  east ; 
while,  on  the  south,  rivers  that  widen  into  real  arms  of 
the  sea  forbid  any  hostile  approach.  Safely  sheltered 
behind  this  protected  belt  of  waters  lies  the  principal 
fortress  of  the  country,  Amsterdam,  surrounded  by  a  wide 
ring  of  forts  and  a  territory  within  its  own  power  to 
inundate.  The  surrounding  defences  are  completed  by 
the  fort  of   Ijmuiden    at  the  entrance  to  the  North  Sea 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL   DEFENCE      331 

Canal,  and  by  the  forts  around  Helder,  which  close  not 
only  the  entrance  to  the  North  Holland  Canal  but  also 
that  to  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  so  prevent  the  passage  towards 
Amsterdam  of  hostile  ships  or  of  materials  for  a  siege. 

The  peaceful  dispositions  and  the  good  state  of  defence 
of  its  three  neighbours  on  the  west  are  of  great  import- 
ance to  Germany  in  the  task  of  defending  its  150  miles 
of  frontier  against  France.  The  acquisitions  of  the  last 
great  war,  which  restored  the  losses  of  centuries,  altered 
the  conditions  of  national  defence  fundamentally  and  to 
the  advantage  of  Germany.  Whereas  the  former  frontier 
used  to  be  the  Rhine,  which  served  to  conceal  the  miHtary 
preparations  of  France,  and  whereas  the  fortress  of  Strass- 
burg  used  to  be  a  direct  menace  to  the  safety  of  South 
Germany,  the  river,  from  Basle  to  the  frontier  of  Holland, 
is  now  once  more  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Germans. 
If  there  were  danger  of  war,  the  line  of  the  Rhine  would 
cover  the  strategic  advance  of  the  German  forces.  Be- 
tween Basle  and  Mayence  the  river  is  crossed  upon  German 
territory  by  eleven  railway  bridges  and  sixteen  pontoon 
bridges.  Beyond  the  river,  Upper  Alsace  is  covered  by 
the  broad  and  wooded  mountains  of  the  Vosges ;  and 
where  these  mountains  end,  and  the  Saar  basin  is  bor- 
dered by  low  hills,  eight  lines  of  railway  run  from  the 
reach  of  the  Rhine  between  Strassburg  and  Cologne 
towards  the  westward  projection  of  the  frontier  of 
Lorraine.  The  newly  acquired  line  of  the  Moselle  is 
here  protected  by  the  mighty  fortress  of  Metz,  the  new 
forts  of  which  form  a  circle  round  the  town  five  miles  in 
diameter,  and  more  to  the  north,  close  to  the  frontier 
of  Luxemburg,  by  Diedenhofen.  It  would  be  between 
Metz  and  the  northern  end  of  the  Vosges,  as  a  glance  at 
the  railway  map  will  show  us,  in  front  of  the  Saar  and 
behind  the  Seille,  that  the  main  defending  force  of  Ger- 
many would  probably  collect.  Military  writers  consider 
the  fields  round  Luneville  and  Nancy  as  the  probable 
scene  of  the  first  decisive  action  in  any  future  war.  Its 
result  would  decide  whether  an  advance  upon  the  first 
French  line  of  defence,  supported  by  the  Upper  Moselle 


332  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

and  Meuse  and  by  the  great  fortresses  of  Epinal,  Toul, 
and  Verdun,  were  possible  for  the  German  army,  or 
whether  the  French  could  open  their  advance  upon 
the  Rhine  towards  the  great  places  of  Strassburg  and 
Mayence. 

If  the  neutrality  of  Belgium  were  to  be  violated  by 
France,  Cologne  would  become  the  central  point  of 
defence,  and  in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  or  thirty 
years  nothing  has  been  spared  to  bring  its  fortifications 
into  the  best  and  most  modern  condition  ;  the  importance 
of  Wesel,  too,  has  not  been  forgotten.  If  an  advance 
should  be  made  through  the  Gate  of  Belfort  and  North 
Switzerland  towards  the  interior  of  South  Germany,  the 
French  would  indeed  find,  if  they  avoided  the  fortified 
places  of  Breisach  and  Istein,  that  the  whole  reach  of  the 
Rhine  which  lies  between  Germany  and  Switzerland,  from 
Basle  up  to  Constance,  is  unprotected  ;  but  the  modernised 
fortresses  of  Ulm  and  Ingolstadt  would  oppose  a  barrier, 
and  even  under  great  difficulties  would  secure  time  for 
the  German  military  leaders  to  collect  sufficient  forces  on 
the  Danube,  or  to  carry  out  serious  operations  against  the 
enemy's  communications. 

Any  attack  upon  the  western  frontier  of  Germany 
would  probably,  in  the  present  preponderance  of  the 
French  navy,  be  accompanied  by  a  threatening  of  the 
German  coasts.  The  experiences  of  the  last  war  should 
not  lead  to  the  underestimation  of  this  danger.  In  the  North 
Sea,  the  shallows  impede  the  approach  of  hostile  vessels. 
Nothing,  however,  has  been  left  undone  in  the  defences 
of  the  naval  station  of  Wilhelmshaven,  and  of  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers  Elbe  and  Weser.  The  acquisition  of  the 
Island  of  Heligoland  is  of  ambiguous  value.  While  this 
little  rocky  islet  remained  in  the  hands  of  England,  Ger- 
many might  at  any  time  have  had  the  annoyance  of  seeing 
a  hostile  fleet  collect  there,  but  now  that  it  is  protected 
by  German  batteries  it  makes  an  outlying  point  open  to 
the  first  attack.  The  mouth  of  the  Elbe  has  become 
a  more  important  place  since  it  received  the  North  Sea 
and  Baltic  Canal.     The  two  extremities  of  the  canal    are 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL   DEFENCE      333 

not  much  exposed  to  danger  ;  the  more  easterly  lies 
in  the  middle  of  Kiel  Harbour,  and  is  covered  by 
strong  fortifications  at  its  entrance.  To  protect  its 
course  through  Holstein,  if  it  were  threatened  by  a 
force  that  had  landed,  say,  in  Jutland,  would  be  more 
difficult. 

The  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  owing  to  their  extent,  are 
inconvenient  to  fortify,  and  are  not  so  naturally  difficult 
of  approach  as  the  shallows  of  the  North  Sea.  The 
best  protection  here  consists  in  a  line  of  railway  running 
along  the  coast,  and  ready  to  carry  help  to  any  point 
threatened.  The  important  commercial  inlets,  however, 
are  fortified,  or  else  ready  to  be  closed  by  torpedoes 
in  case  of  war.  Fortunately  the  large  towns  lie  far 
back,  out  of  danger  of  bombardment,  a  good  way  up 
the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  in  some  cases  at  the  end  of 
broad  haffs.  Two  of  them,  Dantzig  and  Konigsberg,  are 
already  among  the  strongest  defensive  positions  along  the 
eastern  frontier. 

If  France  were  to  conspire  with  the  giant  Empire  of 
the  east  for  the  destruction  of  the  German  Empire,  it 
would  help"  to  bring  about  its  own  ruin  and  the  slavery 
of  its  future  generations.  The  unlimited  growth  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  and  the  disturbance  of  the  balance  of 
power  in  the  interior  of  Europe  to  the  advantage  of 
Russia,  which  already  contains  more  than  a  quarter  of 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Continent,  do  undoubtedly  con- 
stitute a  danger  to  the  whole  Germanic,  and  also  to  the 
whole  Latin  world.  The  danger  is  but  little  lessened  by 
the  consideration  that  there  are  no  grave  interests  in 
dispute  between  Russia  and  Germany.  While  it  is  certain 
that  Germany  will  never  covet  a  square  mile  of  Russian 
soil,  no  one  can  answer  for  it  that  the  Russian  Colossus, 
in  its  unceasing  expansion,  may  not  some  day  attempt 
once  more  to  push  its  western  frontier  forward.  No 
natural  barriers,  difficult  to  cross,  protect  Germany  on 
the  east.  Only  the  power  of  the  German  people  to 
defend  itself  can  protect  this  boundary. 

The   task   is   rendered   more   difficult    by   the   length 


334 


CENTRAL   EUROPE 


and  its  retreating  curve  to  the  westward.  The  frontier 
measures  750  miles  from  Memel  to  the  Three- Emperors 
Corner  at  Myslowitz,  and  while  the  direct  Hne  from  the 
eastern  ends  of  East  Prussia  and  Silesia  passes  through 
Warsaw,  the  Russian  territory  on  the  Middle  Warta 
pushes  so  far  westward  that  Berlin  stands  at  a  distance 
of  only  180  miles  from  the  frontier.  This  wedge  of 
Poland  points  menacingly  towards  the  German  capital, 
and  leaves  the  military  strength  of  Russia  free  to  choose 
upon  what  part  of  the  long  frontier  line  it  will  direct  the 
full  force  of  its  onset.  East  Prussia,  surrounded  on  the 
south,  east,  and  north  by  Russian  territory,  exposed  on 
the  north-west  to  the  attack  of  the  Russian  Baltic  fleet, 
is  connected  with  the  main  body  of  the  Empire  only  by 
a  length  of  75  miles  and  lies  in  the  greatest  danger.  The 
first  effort  of  any  Russian  attack  would  be  to  paralyse 
this  wing  of  the  Prussian  eagle.  If  the  armies  of 
Germany  were  compelled  to  act  on  the  defensive  here, 
they  would  find  their  task  lightened  only  along  the 
southern  border,  where  there  are  woods  and  the  tangled 
waters  of  Masuria.  Between  the  long  lakes  with  their 
many  arms,  the  roads  have  to  go  across  narrow  passages 
which  would  be  easy  to  defend,  even  if  the  closing  of 
them  had  not  been  prepared  in  time  of  peace,  by  building 
little  forts  like  Fort  Boyen  at  Lotzen.  For  great  hostile 
undertakings  this  tract  of  country  is  in  any  case  less 
suitable.  The  natural  lines  of  Russian  advance  are  the 
broad  valleys  of  the  Pregel  and  the  Vistula.  The  Russian 
railway  system  has  prepared,  in  the  junctions  of  Vilna 
and  Warsaw,  points  of  departure  for  both  these  lines  of 
attack.  The  fortifications  of  Kovno,  at  the  crossing  of  the 
Niemen,  form  a  base  from  which  an  army  which  was  not 
opposed  by  an  equal  force  would  find  the  way  .  open 
through  the  Pregel  district  as  far  as  Konigsberg.  A  wide 
ring  of  forts  has  of  late  years  made  this  place  into  a 
fortress  of  the  first  rank,  which  cannot  be  fully  sur- 
rounded so  long  as  the  Frische  Haff  with  its  fortified 
entrance,  the  Pillauer  Deep,  are  not  in  the  enemy's  hands. 
With  Konigsberg  as  a  base,  a  lesser  Prussian  army  might 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL   DEFENCE      335 

maintain  its  footing  upon  the  island  of  the  coast  between 
the  Haffs  and  the  mouths  of  the  Pregel,  whose  branches 
fall  into  them  ;  or,  stationed  behind  the  Deime  and  the 
Alle,  such  an  army  could  protect  all  East  Prussia.  Its 
situation  would  only  be  seriously  endangered  if  a  Russian 
army  from  the  Vistula  were  to  gain  a  decisive  success, 
and  to  cut  East  Prussia's  communications  on  the  west. 
The  strong  fortifications  on  the  line  of  the  Vistula  have 
been  erected  to  meet  this  danger.  Thorn,  in  particular, 
has  a  large  ring  of  detached  forts  commanding  both 
banks  of  the  river,  and  able  with  an  energetic  and  active 
garrison  to  extend  their  influence  north-eastward,  as  far 
as  the  Prussian  lake  country,  and  south-westward  as  far  as 
the  lakes  of  the  Upper  Netze.  Only  30  miles  further  to 
the  north  lies  Graudenz  at  the  head  of  an  important 
bridge,  which  has  recently  been  strongly  fortified,  and 
lies  half-way  between  Thorn  and  the  delta  of  the  Vistula. 
The  area  of  the  delta  ready  for  inundation  strengthens 
the  position  of  Dantzig,  which  the  forts  on  the  western 
hills  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  river  have  made  into  a 
spot  most  capable  of  being  defended.  It  is  connected 
with  Konigsberg  on  one  side  by  the  Frische  Haff, 

With  the  great  military  strength  which  Russia  has  at 
command,  it  would  undoubtedly  be  possible  that,  simul- 
taneously with  an  invasion  along  the  Pregel  and  Vistula, 
an  advance  should  be  attempted  towards  Berlin.  The 
advancing  army  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula  would  be 
threatened  on  the  flank  by  Thorn,  and  could  not  go  on 
until  it  had  completely  invested  this  fortress  ;  but  if  it  did 
succeed  in  reaching  the  eastern  border  of  the  province  of 
Posen,  it  would  come  into  a  country  much  cut  up  by  long 
lakes  running  from  north  to  south  and  offering  many 
positions  favourable  to  the  defence.  Beyond  lies  the  reach 
of  the  Warta  that  runs  northward,  and  upon  it  the  strong 
fortress  of  Posen.  Here  the  lines  of  communication  from 
all  the  eastern  portions  of  the  Empire  converge.  An  in- 
terruption of  these  communications,  by  the  surrounding 
of  Posen,  would  be  a  heavy  blow  which  the  German 
military  leaders  would  have  to  use  every  exertion  to  pre- 


336  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

vent.  The  wide  ring  of  forts  and  the  modern  methods  of 
construction  give  to  Posen  a  great  power  of  resistance  to 
a  siege,  the  materials  for  which  would  have  to  be  brought 
from  a  great  distance  and  by  very  difficult  roads.  Taken 
together,  Konigsberg,  Dantzig,  Thorn,  and  Posen  form  a 
ring  of  fortresses  that  enclose  a  natural  division  of  territory 
and  greatly  enhance  its  powers  of  defence.  The  line  of 
the  Oder  is  of  but  secondary  importance.  Since  the 
razing  of  the  defences  of  Stettin,  it  has  possessed  but 
one  strong  fortress,  Ciistrin,  which  has  outlying  forts,  and 
stands  at  the  embouchure  of  the  Warta  in  a  considerable 
area  of  easily  flooded  country.  South  of  the  Obra  Bruch, 
which  connects  the  Warta  and  the  Oder,  and  bounds  the 
sphere  of  influence  belonging  to  the  fortress  of  Posen, 
lies  but  one  fortified  place,  at  the  head  of  a  bridge, 
Glogau.  Silesia  is  less  important  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  the  eastern  frontier.  It  does  not  lie  in  the 
natural  line  of  a  Russian  advance,  and  is  in  some  degree 
defended  by  the  far  projection  eastward  of  the  Austrian 
Empire. 

The  whole  conditions  of  national  defence  along  this 
eastern  frontier,  with  its  unfavourable  peculiarities,  suggest 
that  this  border  cannot  be  satisfactorily  held  on  the 
defensive,  and  that  serious  injury  can  only  be  averted 
by  a  vigorous  offensive.  In  the  eastern  provinces  where 
no  river  runs,  like  the  Rhine,  parallel  with  the  frontier, 
making  a  basis  of  defence,  the  place  of  some  such  basis 
would  have  to  be  supplied  artificially  by  railway  lines 
running  along  the  border.  The  carefully  laid  out  system 
of  communications  has  everywhere  created  two,  and  some- 
times for  long  distances  three,  independent  lines  of  railway 
running  parallel  with  the  frontier,  and  these — if  satis- 
factorily secured  against  destructive  attacks  by  bodies  of 
Russian  cavalry — would  render  possible  a  rapid  displace- 
ment of  troops.  They  can,  however,  only  be  so  guarded 
by  a  considerable  advance  of  German  troops.  As  the 
different  size  of  the  areas  to  be  covered  and  the  differences 
in  railway  development  in  the  two  empires  would  un- 
doubtedly assure  to  the  Germans  the  advantage  of  being 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL    DEFENCE      337 

more  quickly  ready  for  battle,  it  is  obvious  that  Russia 
must  reckon,  in  case  of  war,  upon  taking  up  at  first  a 
purely  defensive  attitude.  She  has  prepared  for  it  by 
constructing  the  square  of  Polish  fortresses  —  Novo 
Georgiewsk,  Ivangorod,  Brest-Litewski,  and  Goniondz — 
which  will  enable  her  to  collect  her  forces  behind  the 
great  river  frontage  of  the  Bobr,  Narew,  Bug,  and 
Vistula,  and  there  to  await  with  confidence  the  approach 
of  any  attack.  Warsaw  has  also  been  made  into  a 
stronghold. 

This  conception  of  the  position  depends  upon  the 
paucity  of  railways,  economically  so  much  required  in  the 
great  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula.  Russia 
trusts  for  protection,  even  in  this  first  stage  of  a  war,  to 
her  superfluity  of  space,  and  to  that  "  fifth  element  "  which 
Napoleon  discovered  with  terror — the  unfathomable  mud 
of  the  roadway,  which  paralyses  the  most  active  strategy 
and  tires  the  most  valorous  soldiers.  The  offensive  side 
of  national  defence  therefore  presents  serious  difficulties 
to  Germany.  But  the  rich  cultivation  and  increased 
population  of  Poland  have  in  the  course  of  a  century 
changed  the  character  of  the  battlefields,  and  deprived 
Russia  of  the  exceptional  position  which  she  appeared  to 
occupy  after  the  experiences  of  Napoleon.  The  Russian 
Empire  cannot  be  regarded  as  so  invulnerable  and  so 
unapproachable  for  hostile  troops  at  the  present  da}'  as  it 
was  in  18 12.  The  method  of  defence  which  was  possible 
then  cannot  be  repeated. 

Calm  and  expert  judges  are  inclined  not  to  over- 
estimate the  danger  of  a  war  with  Russia.  Much  would 
of  course  depend  upon  whether  Germany  had  to  bear 
all  the  weight  of  it  alone,  or  whether  it  could  reckon  on 
the  aid  of  its  present  ally,  Austria-Hungary.  The  position 
of  that  power  in  regard  to  Russia  is  essentially  different. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Empire  is  sheltered  by  the  Car- 
pathians. Only  Silesia,  Galicia,  and  the  Bukovina  stretch 
down  into  the  plain  of  Eastern  Europe,  and  absolutely 
demand  an  armed  defence  against  their  great  neighbour. 


338  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

Three  railways  lead  from  MoraVia  and  live  from  Hungary 
into  the  district  where  the  Oder  rises,  and  into  the  basins 
of  the  Vistula  and  Dniester.  Of  these  railways,  six  debouch 
into  the  valleys  of  the  Vistula  and  San,  behind  which 
the  principal  defensive  force  would  have  to  assemble, 
supported  by  the  two  great  fortresses  of  Cracow  and 
Przemysl,  which  are  connected  by  two  independent  lines. 
Use  could  also  be  made  of  the  lines  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Waag  and  the  Hernad,  deep  in  the  mountains,  if 
troops  had  to  be  carried  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
The  choice  of  two  points  of  concentration  at  only  150 
miles  apart  bears  witness  clearly  enough  to  the  con- 
viction that  a  strip  of  land  so  long,  and  at  the  ends  so 
narrow,  as  the  outer  border  of  the  Carpathians  from 
Teschen  to  Czernowitz  (400  miles)  can  only  be  defended 
by  forces  held  well  together,  and  ready  to  take  the  offen- 
sive. The  attraction  of  the  enemy  by  a  strong  army 
serves  better  than  a  dispersion  of  forces  to  secure  districts 
that  lie  at  a  distance.  While  the  army  of  Cracow  in  a 
well-chosen  position  would  face  towards  the  Polish  seat 
of  war,  and  at  the  same  time  be  ready,  in  case  of  an 
alliance,  for  co-operation  with  the  German  forces,  the  army 
of  Przemysl  and  Lemberg  would  be  required  to  advance 
towards  Volhynia  and  Little  Russia.  In  consequence 
of  the  division  of  the  country  into  a  northern  and  a 
southern  field  of  operations,  separated  by  the  great  marshy 
district  of  the  Bug  and  the  Pripet,  this  army  would  choose 
an  independent  aim,  namely,  Kiev. 

While  the  great  Powers  of  Central  Europe,  if  com- 
pelled to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  eastern  frontier, 
would  obviously  try  to  carry  the  decisive  action  into  the 
enemy's  country,  Roumania,  weaker  in  regard  to  Russia, 
both  owing  to  its  position  and  to  the  conformation  of  its 
frontier,  could  only  hope  to  protect  itself  by  a  resolutely 
defensive  attitude  ;  its  task  would  be  to  find  means  of 
holding  in  check  the  overwhelming  power  of  its  neighbour 
until  help  came.  The  line  of  the  Sereth  suggested  the 
construction  of  fortifications  here,  the   principal    centres 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL   DEFENCE      339 

being  Focsani,  Namalossa,  and  Galatz.  The  fortification 
of  the  capital,  Bucharest,  is  on  an  equally  large  scale.  The 
great  sacrifices  which  Roumania  has  made  for  the  defence 
of  its  independent  political  position  show  that  it  under- 
stands the  lessons  of  the  near  past,  and  that  it  is  becoming 
a  valuable  pillar  of  the  existing  group  of  Central  European 
states. 

It  is  not  possible  to  speak  with  the  same  certainty  of 
Bulgaria  and  Servia,  which  are  turning  their  measures  of  de- 
fence against  each  other.  It  is  clear  that  not  only  the  new 
fortifications  of  Slivnitsa  and  Belogradzik  near  the  frontier, 
but  also  the  protection  of  Sofia  by  the  four  forts  now  in 
course  of  construction,  are  the  result  of  the  Servian  attack 
in  the  year  1885.  The  old  square  of  fortresses  in  Eastern 
Bulgaria  between  the  Danube  and  the  Balkan,  which 
played  so  famous  a  part  in  the  world's  history  (Rust- 
chuk,  Silistria,  Shumla,  and  Varna),  would  appear  to  have 
no  future  importance.  The  significance  of  Widdin,  too, 
sank  with  the  fall  of  the  empire  whose  northern  border 
it  had  50  long  protected. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  political  and  military  importance 
of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  have  increased  since  Austria- 
Hungary  took  its  first  step  this  way  on  the  road  towards 
Salonica.  That  the  road  may  be  stubbornly  disputed  the 
Government  is  perfectly  aware.  Even  the  retention  of 
what  has  been  already  gained  is  opposed  by  the  Great 
Servian  agitation  originating  in  Montenegro.  A  conflict 
between  Austria  and  Russia  would  fan  it  into  open  insur- 
rection in  Herzegovina.  The  Austrians  are  preparing  for 
all  eventualities.  Besides  numerous  little  forts  and  block- 
houses, they  have  built  three  great  fortresses  with  detached 
forts  at  Sarayevo,  Mostar,  and  Trebinye,  and  have  facilitated 
the  dominion  of  the  country  by  an  admirable  development 
of  the  road  system.  In  particular,  they  have  surrounded 
with  well-chosen  fortified  posts  Montenegro,  the  hotbed 
of  disturbances,  which  has  long  felt  as  an  oppressive  chain 
the  strong  defences  at  the  Bocche  di  Cattaro.  Time 
has  not  softened  the  mutual  antagonism.  The  moment 
23 


340  CENTRAL   EUROPE 

of  outbreak  is  awaited.  The  nature  of  the  country, 
unusually  favourable  to  guerilla  warfare  and  to  the  pre- 
servation of  bands  of  insurgents,  would  make  any  contest 
for  supremacy  long  and  trying.  None  of  the  rose-coloured 
reports  that  are  spread,  and  that  in  a  measure  fit  Bosnia, 
can  charm  away  this  danger  that  threatens  Herzegovina. 
Austria  here  holds  a  wolf  by  the  ears. 

In  such  circumstances — and  they  exist  in  Dalmatia 
too  and  darken  many  a  corner  of  it — it  becomes  very 
important  to  Austria  that  her  fleet  should  rule  the  Adriatic. 
Its  principal  stations  are  at  Cattaro,  the  island  of  Lissa, 
and  the  fine  military  harbour  of  Pola  in  Istria. 

Along  the  Alpine  frontier  the  old  tension  between 
Austria  and  Italy  has  ostensibly  died  down  since  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Triple  Alliance  ;  but  the  openly  expressed 
desire  of  the  Italians  to  possess  the  Trentino  keeps  awake 
the  watchfulness  of  Austria. 

Although  preparations  are  thus  made  for  defence  on 
the  four  faces  of  Central  Europe  and  are  continually 
perfected  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  times,  we 
may,  on  the  other  hand,  perceive  in  its  interior  a  striking 
diminution  of  the  friction  between  one  state  and  another 
which  was  formerly  so  marked  a  defect.  A  general  view 
of  the  defensive  measures  of  Central  Europe  in  the 
present  day  brings  out,  as  at  no  previous  time,  the  essen- 
tial unity  of  this  great  civilised  region.  Among  all  the 
alliances  of  our  day,  that  between  the  two  great  Central 
European  Powers  is  the  most  natural  and  has  the 
strongest  internal  guarantees  of  permanence.  If  these 
two  continue  to  hold  together,  not  only  will  their  smaller 
western  neighbours  be  enabled,  under  the  protection 
of  their  swords,  still  to  enjoy  prosperity  and  security, 
but  the  unruly  peoples  between  the  Adriatic  and  Black 
Seas  will  also  learn  to  value  and  enjoy  the  blessings  of 
peaceful  industry.  Central  Europe  has  been  the  battle- 
field of  all  nations  long  enough  to  resist  a  recurrence 
of  such  sufferings  with  all  its  might  and  by  a  united 
movement  of  its  millions  of  trained  soldiers.     May  the 


CONDITIONS   OF   NATIONAL   DEFENCE      341 

great  monument  on  the  battlefield  of  Leipzig,  where  the 
criminal  effort  to  enslave  a  whole  continent  was  defeated, 
not  by  military  skill,  but  by  the  elemental  power  of 
liberty-loving  nations,  remain  the  last  memento  of  the 
political  errors  of  previous  centuries,  a  warning  to  all 
ambitious  tyrants  in  the  future,  and  an  admonition  to  the 
peoples  of  Central  Europe  to  remain  united,  to  keep  peace, 
and  to  command  peace. 


INDEX 


Aar  River,  17,  22 
Abbazia,  1 1 3 
Achensee,  Lake,  40 
Adamello  group,  35,  37 
Adda  River,  17,  35 
Adersbach,  77 
Adige  River,  17,  35,  37,  38 
Adrianople,  65 

Adriatic  Sea,  7,  116,  211,  228,  313  ; 
coast,  rainfall,   121  ;  watershed, 

37 

Adula,  glaciers  of,  33 

/Egean  Sea,  rivers  of,  65 

Aestii,  the,  125,  134 

Aggtelek,  cavern  of,  170 

Agram,  20,  225,  227 

Agriculture,  170,  199 

Aiguilles,  the,  49 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  144,  261,  327 

Albanians,  the,  139 

Albula  River,  33 

Alcoholic  drinks,  179 

Alemanni,  the  (sc-e  Swabians) 

Alemannic  dialect,  132 

Aletsch  Glacier,  2 1 

Alexander  of  Battenberg,  155 

Alfbld  {see  Hungarian  Plain) 

Alle  River,  335 

AUer  River,  92,  103,  277 

Alnmouth,  1 10 

Alpine  Foreland,    18,   41  ;   glacier 
system,  21  ;  landscape,  19 

Alps,  2,  3,  13,  16,  117;  Bernese, 
26  ;  Cottian,  26  ;  Dinaric,  231  ; 
Eastern,  17,  34,  130,  208  ;  Ger- 
man foreland  of,  42  ;  Gneissic, 
18  ;  Graian,  26  ;  Helvetian,  28  ;  ', 
Limestone,  18,  26  ;  Maritime,  I 
26  ;  Northern,  39 ;  Oetzthal,  35  ; 
Pennine,  26  ;  pre-,  18  ;  rainfall  of, 
22  ;  Rhsetian,  34  ;  Western,  11, 

Alsace,  146,  242,  250 
Alsen,  93 


Alster  River,  292 

Alt  River,  48,  50 

Altena,  260 

Altenberg,  306 

Altmark,  the,  276 

Altmiihl  River,  127,  316 

Altona,  277,  294 

Altvater  Gebirge,  78 

America,  292  ;  North,  292,  293 

Ammersee,  Lake,  41 

Ampezzo,  37 

Amselfeld,  64,  57  ;  battle  of,  153, 

154 
Amster  River,  302 
Amsterdam,  302,  303 
Andermatt,  31,  329 
Andree,  R.,  202 
Anglo-Saxon  dialect,  133 
Angot,  123 
Aniline  dye,  195 
Annaberg,  7^,  271 
Antivari,  153,  232 
Antwerp,  i,  iii,  148,299,  303,  304, 

309,  310,  330  ;  port  of,  no 
Appenzell,  204 
Aquileia,  210 
Aquincum,  224 
Arad,  223 

Aranyosh  River,  222 
Arbe,  60 

Arber,  Mount,  76 
Arcona,  96 
Ardennes,  the,  3,  1 5,  79,  86,  305  ; 

Mountains  of,  85 
Aremberg  Moor,  105 
Argentina,  175 
Argentoratum,  249 
Aristotle,  214 
Arlberg  Pass,  17 
Amheim,  301 
Arpads,  the,  224 
Ar\-a,  Valley  of,  50 
Asia  Minor,  198 
Atlantic  Ocean,  7,  310 


344 


INDEX 


Attila,  223 

Augsburg,  81,  198,  243,  246 

Augusta  Vindelicorum,  243 

"  Ausgleich,"  the,  151 

Aussee,  207 

Austria,  7,  13,  145  ;  Alpine 
countries  of,  207  ;  Lower,  189  ; 
plain  of  Lower,  38  ;  Upper, 
39  ;  Sudetic  and  Carpathian 
countries  of,  214  ;  Trauna  dis- 
trict of  Upper,  40 

Austrian  Lloyd  Company,  229 

Austro- Hungary,  waterways  of,  314 

Auvergne,  85 

Avars,  the,  134,  140 

Aztecs,  the,  171 

Babelsberg,  Castle  of,  283 

Babia  Gora,  47 

Baden,  28,  113  ;  Grand  Duchy  of, 

242 
Bajuvari,  the,  124,  129 
Bakonyan  Forest,  51,  225 
Balaton,  Lake,  56 
Baldegg,  Lake,  29 
Bale,  J.,  46 

Balkan  Mountains,  2,  65,  66 
Balta,  Islands  of,  70 
Baltic  Islands,  90  ;  ridge,  92,  98  ; 

Sea,  I,  7,  78,  92,  93,  97,  114,  198, 

211,  288,  289,  313;  fisheries  of, 

290 
Baltic  and  North  Sea  Canal,  7 
Bamberg,  81,  247 
Banat,  the,  52,  65 
Bardowik,  291 
Barley,  170 
Barmen,  260 
Bartsch  River,  loi,  278 
Baruth  Valley,  loi 
Basle,  82,  204,  205,  250 
Basses  Alpes,  25 
Bastarni,  the,  125 
Bautzen,  135,  272 

Bavaria,  13,  242  ;  high  plain  of,  41 
Bavarian  Allgau,  207  ;  Forest,  43, 

76  ;  Vogtland,  242 
Bavarians,  the,  134,  241 
Baziash,  55 
Beech  tree,  164 
Beer,  177,  180 
Beet,  176 

Belfort,  328  ;  gate  of,  332 
Belgian  International  traffic,  mam 

centre  of,  no 


Belgium,  299,  305,  327  ;   defences 

of,  329  ;  imports  and  exports  of, 

200  ;  mercantile  marine  of,  310  ; 

waterways  of,  314 
Belgrade,  154,  226,  234  ;  and  Salo- 

nica  railway,  64 
Belle  Donne  Mountains,  26 
Belluno,  20 
Belogradzik,  339 
Berchtesgaden,  207 
Bergamo,  36 
Berghaus,  123 
"  Bergstrasse,"  83 
Berlin,  100,  loi,  277,  278,  280,  288, 

315,  324  ;  Congress  of,  55,  155  ; 

-Kolln,  281  ;  lines  of  equal  time 

distance   by  express  train  from, 

322  ;  University  of,  282 
Berne,  206 
Bernese  Oberland,  31, 206 ;  glaciers 

of,  21 
Bernina,  35 

Beskid  Mountains,  47,  73 
Bessarabia,  13 
Beveland,  309 
Bex,  204 
Biebrich,  254 
Biel,  Lake,  30 

Biela  River,  75,  76  ;  Valley,  215 
Bielefeld,  263 
Bille  River,  292 
Billwiller,  8 

Bingen,  84,  85,  143,  241 
Birnbaum,  137 
Bisamberg,  44 
Bittner,  A.,  71 
Blaavanshook,  no 
Black  Elster  River,  257  ;  Valley  of, 

103 
Black    Forest,    n,   82,    163,    241, 

248  ;  railway,  251 
Black  Sea,  i,  7,  78,  116,  210,  238 
Blankanese,  291 
Blink,  H.,  312 
Bobr  River,  3,  100,  337 
Bocche  di  Cattaro,  the,  61,  120,339 
Bochnia,  151 
Bochum,  260 
Bogumilo,  the,  233 
Bohemia,  3,  n,  12,  14,  15,  74,  130, 

214  ;  basin  of,  116 
Bohemian  Forest,  43,  75 
Bohm,  A.,  46 
Bohmer  Wald,  162 
Bojana  River,  112 


INDEX 


345 


Boji,  the,  124 

Bonn,  85,  258 

Bora,  the,  1 17,  228,  229 

Bosnia,  62,  63,  152,  232,  233,  339 

Bosnian  railway,  64 

Bourg  St.  Maurice,  fort  of,  329 

Bourtanger  Moor,  105,  297 

Boyana  River,  57,  232 

Boyars,  155 

Boyen,  Fort,  334 

Bozen,  37,  209 

Braakman  River,  308 

Brabant,  299,  307  ;  North,  304 

Brahe  River,  loi,  278 

Braila,  70,  174,  238 

Brandenburg,  277,  280  ;  electorate 
of,  145  ;  Mark  of,  loi,  130,  277 

Brandy,  180 

Brazil,  230,  292 

Breisach,  332 

Breite  Vierzehn  depths,  1 10 

Bremen,  iii,  295  ;  shipping  of,  296 

Bremerhaven,  295 

Brenner,  the,  24,  35,  209 

Brescia,  37 

Breslau,  78,  90,  274,  277 

Brest-Litewski,  337 

Brigetio,  211,  224 

British  Isles,  4,  324;  merchant 
service,  238 

Brittany,  1 1 

Brixen,  209 

Brocken,  the,  87 

Brody,  219 

Bromberg,  278  ;  Canal,  loi 

Bruckner,  Edward,  46 

Bruges,  307,  308 

Briinn,  216 

Brunnen,  28 

Brunig  railway,  28 

Brunsbiittel,  314 

Brunswick,  87,  264 

Brussels,  307 

Bucharest,  1 16,  339 

Biickeberg,  the,  263 

Buckwheat,  170 

Bucsecs,  48 

Budapest,  174,  225 ;  Boring  be- 
neath, 51 

Budweis,  75,  215 

Bug  River,  72,  137,  218,  337,  338 

Bukowina,  the,  13,  129,  217,  238 

Bulgaria,  3,  155,  235,  339  ;  primitive 
mountains  and  main  valleys  of, 
63 


Bulgarian  Tableland,  66 
Bulgarians,  the,  139,  154 
Bundenerthal,  31 
Burgas,  3,  67  ;  Bay  of,  68,  236 
Burgundy,  Dukes  of,  298,  307 
Burgundy,  Gate  of^  82,  249 
Butjadingen,  107 
Byelashnitsa  Mountain,  63 
Byzantine  Empire,  139 
Byzantium,  237 
Bzura  River,  loi 

Cannstadt,  246 

Carinthia,  11,  38,  207 

Carlsbad,  Springs  of,  182 

Carlsruhe,  250,  251 

Camiola,  38,  207  ;   Mountains  of, 

22 
Carnuntum,  211,  224 
Carpathians,  2,  13,  47,  49,  50,  90, 

102,  117,  221,337 
Cassel,  262 
Cattaro,  231,  340 
Cattle,  166,  168 
Caucasus,  66 
Cereals,  170 
Cettinje,  120 
Cevennes  Mountains,  11 
Chambery,  26 
Chamouni,  32 
Charlemagne,   130,    143,  261,  265, 

291,  316 
Charleroi,  86,  306 
Charles  the   Bold,   144,   299 ;   the 

First,   157;  the  Fifth,   144,  299, 

310  ;  the  Sixth,  230 
Charlottenburg,  277,  282  ;  technical 

college  at,  282 
Chateau  Salins,  255 
Chatti,  the,  261 
Chavanne,  J.,  202 
Cheese,  168 
Chemical  works,  195 
Chemnitz,  77,  270,  271 
Cherso,  60 
Cherusci,  the,  261 
Chiers,  Valley  of^  86 
China,  230 
Christ,  H.,  46 
Chur,  23,  31,  33,  206 
Cimbri,  the,  125 
Cimbrian  Peninsula,  99 
Cisleithania,  151 
Coal,  187,  194,  196 
Coblentz,  85,  162,  258 


346 


INDEX 


Cologne,  114,  174,  258,  313,    332; 

lowland  bay  of,  85 
Como,  Lake,  19 
Congo  State,  310 
Constance,  205,  242  ;   Lake  of,  19, 

30,  1 58,  242 
Constantine,  236 
Constantinople,  212 
Constanza,  237 
Copenhagen,  288,  289,  314 
Copper,  185,  198,  207 
Cosmas,  214 
Cottbus,  277 
Cotton,  199 
Courland,  98 
Cracow,  217,  218,  338  ;  Republic  of, 

158 
Credner,  Rudolph,  1 1 1 
Creteid,  259 
Crimea,  the,  66 
Crimmitschau,  271 
Croats,  the,  139 
Crotia,  152,  220,  228 
Csik  Basin,  48 
Csikoshs,the,  166 
Cuba,  176 

Curische  Haff,  the,  284 
Customs  Union,  146,  148,  292,  293 
Ciistrin,  100  ;  Fortress  of,  336 
Cuxhaven,  107,  294 
Cvijic,  J.,  71 
Czechs,  136 
Czenstochow,  73 
Czerna  Hora,  the,  48,  69 
Czernagora,  153 
Czernavoda,  237 
Czernowitz,  219 

Dachan,  Bog  of,  41 

Dachstein,  Lake,  40 

Dacia,  128 

Dalmatia,  62,   116,   120,    152,   228, 

340  ;  fisheries  of,  231 
Dalmatian  Shore,  7  ;  Archipelago, 

61 
Danes,   the,    129 ;    of    Schleswig- 

Holstein,  134 
Dantzig,    93,    218,    283,   285,    333, 

336;  Gulf  of,  95,  285 
Danube  River,  3,  7,  12,  34,  54,  66, 

122,    123,    129,    227,    245,    316; 

Canal,  213  ;    and    Main    Canal, 

316  ;     and    Oder    Canal,    316  ; 

basin   of,   48  ;    entry  into   Jura, 

44  ;    German,    41  ;    Hungarian, 


47,  52  ;  lower,  69,  313  ;  middle 
lowland  of,  140;  mountain  course 
of,  55 

Darmstadt,  250,  253 

Davis,  W.  M.,  15 

Davos  Landwater,  34 

Dead  Mountain,  40 

Debes,  9 

Deime  River.  98,  335 

Deister,  the,  263  ;  ridge,  88 

Deli  Orman,  68 

Demeter,  180 

Demir  Kapu,  67 

Dender  River,  308 

Denmark,  146 

Dent  du  Midi,  32 

Dent  de  Morcles,  32 

Deveny,  Gap  of,  45,  47 

Dialects,  High  German,  Low 
German,  Lower  Saxon,  Frisian,^ 
Lower  Franconian,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Dutch,  Flemish,  133  ; 
Alemannic,  132 

Diedenhofen,  331 

Diener,  C,  46 

Diluvial  Period,  loi 

Diocletian,  231 

Dirschau,  285 

Ditmarsh,  107 

Dniester  River,  47,  72,  129,  218 

Dobratsh  River,  138 

Dobruja,  the,  68  ;  Steppes  of,  238 

Dogger  Bank,  iii,  311 

"Dolines,"  58 

Dollart,  the,  108,  296  ;  foundation 
of,  107 

Dolomites,  48 

Donau-Moos,  44 

Donau-Ried,  44 

Donauworth,  44 

Doras,  the,  36 

Dordrecht,  109 

Dortmund,  85,  259,  260,  315  ;  and 
Ems  Canal,  259 

Doubs  River,  27 

Dover,  Straits  of,  304 

Drac,  Valley  of,  17 

Drave  River,  38,  56,  226  ;  Valley,. 

19,23 
Dresden,  272 
Drewenz  River,  99 
Drin  River,  57 
Droemling  River,  277 
Drohobycz,  219 
Dromling,  the,  103 


INDEX 


347 


Drude,  202 
Duisburg,  90,  259 
Dulcigno,  153,  232 
Diimmer,  Lake,  104 
Dunkerque,  2 
Durance,  Valley  of,  22 
Durlach,  251 
Diisseldorf,  259,  260 
Dutch  language,  133 

Ebensee,  207 

Eberswalde  Valley,  100 

Eger  River,  75,  76  ;  Valley,  215 

Egge  Mountain,  88 

Egli,  J.  J.,  8 

Eichsfeld,  268 

Eider,  Valley  of,  98 

Eiderstedt    Peninsula,    dunes    of, 

106 
Eifel,  the,  261 
Eifel,  plains  of,  85  ;   volcanoes  of, 

85 
Eisack,  38  ;  Valley,  209 
Eisenerz,  207  ;  Mountain,  187 
Ekernforde,  Valley  of,  98 
Elbe  River,  4,  15,75,92,  103,  122, 

256,  265,  291,  332  ;    estuary  of, 

107  ;  valley  of,  100  ;  and  Trave 

Canal,  289 
Elberfeld,  260 
Elbing,  99,  285,315 
Elector,  the  Great,  281 
Electors  Palatine.  Castle  of,  253 
Elfert,  123 

Elster  River,  267  ;  basin,  267 
Emden,  296,  324 
Emineh,  Cape,  68 
Emmerich,  301 
Ems,  258  ;  River,  88,  296 
Emscher  River,  259 
Engadine,  the,  17,  22,  34 
Engelbrecht,  177,  178,  202 
England,  201,  292 
English  Channel,  314 
Enns,  38,  43  ;  River,  210 
Epinal,  Fortress  of,  332 
Erding,  Bog  of,  41 
Erfurt,  80,  269 
Erzegebirge,  14,  75.  I94,  215,  266, 

271  ;  Saxon,  76 
Essen,  195,  260 
Europe,  Central,advanceof  Romans 

into,  126;  animal  and  vegetable 

life   of,    161  ;     climate   of^    112; 

human  industry  of,  191  ;  eastern 


boundary  of,  i  ;  industrial  dis- 
tricts of,  194  ;  mountains  of,  10  ; 
block  mountains  and  tablelands 
of,  72  ;  peoples  of,  124  ;  railway 
systems  of,  317  ;  rainfall  of,  119; 
Roman  boundaries  in,  128  ;  sky 
of,  118  ;  states  of,  143  ;  strong- 
holds for  defence  of.  328  ;  tele- 
graphic and  telephonic  systems, 
324  ;  waterways  of,  315 
Eutin,  Lake,  99 

Feldberg,  the,  248 

Ferdinand  the  Second,  326 

Fichtel  Gebirge,  76 

Finland,  90 

Finstermung,  35 

Fischer,  Theobald,  8 

Fiume,  7,  225,  228,  230 

Flaming,  103 

Flanders,  299  ;  dunes  of,  106 

Flax,  198 

"  Fleets,"  292 

Flemish  Banks,  no  ;  tongue,  133 

Flevo,  Lake,  108 

Flushing,  no,  304,  311 

Focsani,  339 

Fogarash,  Mount,  50 

Fohn  wind,  117 

Forbach,  255 

Fore,  F.  A.,  46 

Forest  Cantons,  ancient  valleys  of, 

29 
Fraas,  Eberhard,  46 
France,  2,  242,  255,  328 
Francia,  130 
Franconia,  14,  80 
Franconian  Forest,  79,  269  ;  lower 

dialect,  133 
Frankfurt,  84,  loi,    144,   174,  252, 

253i  254,278,  279,  315 
Franks,  the,  129,  144,  241,  254,  258, 

291 
Franzensbad,  springs  of,  182 
Franzensfeste,  209 
Freeh,  F.,  15,  46 
Frederick  the  Second,  326  ;  Third, 

153 
Freiburg,  250,  271 
Freising,  Otto  von,  242 
Frejus,  Col  de,  318 
French  Revolution,  147,  242,  259, 

310 
Fribourg,  17,  204 
Friedrichsort,  98 


348  INDEX 


Friesland,  105  ;  bogs  of,  105  ;  mar- 
shes of,  108  ;  West,  300 
Frische  Haff,  94,  285,  334 
Frische  Nehrung,  94 
Frisian  dialect,  133 
Friuli,  Romansh  valleys  of,  128 
Fulda  River,  262 
Fiinfkirchen,  226 
Fiirstenberg,  loi 
Furth,  Gate  of,  76 
Furtwangen,  248 

Galatz,  70,  174,  219,  238,  339 

Galicia,  89,  129,  217 

Galton,  Francis,  325 

Gap,  26 

Garda,  Lake,  36 

Gaul,  125 

Gen^vre,  Mont,  24 

Geneva,  3,  205,  206 ;  Lake  of,  23, 
30,  113,  329  ;  works  of,  193 

Genoa,  i 

Gera,  270 

German  Admiralty  Handbooks, 
III;  Confederation,  145,  148; 
Empire,  boundaries  of,  147;  im- 
ports and  exports  of,  200 ;  foreign 
business  activities  of,  201  ;  ship- 
ping of,  296  ;  waterways  of,  314  ; 
high  and  low  dialects,  132  ; 
Lowland  (North),  15;  Southern 
States,  43  ;  tongue,  142 

Germani,  the,  124,  125 

Germania,  Roman  limes  of,  127  ; 
upper  frontier  of,  127 

Germanic  peoples,  4 

Germans,  the  West,  134 

Germany,  328  ;  Alpine  foreland 
of,  242  ;  Baltic  provinces  of,  92  ; 
Celtic  river  names  in,  125  ; 
central  and  south  tablelands  of, 
79  ;  central  mountains  and  hill 
country  of,  256  ;  easterly  rivers 
of,  114;  and  France,  buffer  states 
between,  149 ;  waterways  of,  316 ; 
maritime  position  of,  7  ;  North, 
great  valleys  of,  277  ;  rainfall  of, 
22  ;  plain  of,  90  ;  North- West, 
5  ;  landscape  of,  104 ;  ridges  of, 
102  ;  South,  15 

Ghent,  308 

Giessen,  262,  263 

Givet,  Fortress  of,  86 

Gjedser,  288 

Glachau,  271 


Glacial  Epoch,  91  ;  Period,  15,  92, 

99,  100 
Glatz,  78 
Gleiwitz,  275 

Gleinwicke,  Castle  of,  283 
Glogau,  102,  277,  336 
Goats,  169 
Gold,  184,  207 
"  Goldene  Aue,"  268 
GoUnitz,  222 
Goniondz,  337 
Gop^evic,  Spiridion,  240 
Goritz,  Plain  of,  24,  228 
Gorlitz,  273 
Goslar,  262,  265 
Gotha,  90,  269 
Gotthard,    folded     mountains    o^ 

13 
Gottingen,  80,  268 
Gotz,  W.,  275 

Grasco-Oriental  Church,  159 
Gran,  224 
Gran  Paradiso,  26 
Gran  River,  53,  221 
Grape,  cultivation  of,  115 
Graudenz,  335 
Gravosa,  62  ;  Bay  of,  231 
Graz,  38,  210 
Great  Privilege,  the,  299 
Greek  Merchant  Service,  238 
Greiz,  270 

Greisfwalder  Bodden,  93 
Grisebach,  202 
Grisons,    17,    204,    207  ;     ancient 

valleys  of,  34  ;  Romansh  valleys 

of,  128 
Groningen,  105 
Gross-Glockner,  35 
Grosswardein,  129,  223 
Guelders,  North,  301 
Guicciardini,  310 
Gulliver,  213 
Guthe,  H.,  297 
Gyalar,  187 

Haarlem,  301 

Haarlemer  Meer,  108 

Habsburg  Empire,  225  ;  Habs- 
burgs,  the,  211,  310 

Hadeln,  107 

Haf?  and  Vistula  Canal,  286 

Hagen,  260 

Hague,  the,  302  ;  Fishing  Conven- 
tion of,  311 

Hainault,  86,  306 


INDEX 


349 


Halberstadt,  265 

Halicz,  72 

Hall,  207 

Halle,  262,  266,  267 

Hallein,  207 

Hallstadt,  207 

Hallwyl,  Lake,  29 

Halstatt,  Lake,  40 

Hamburg,  in,  120,  264,  277,  291, 

292,  293,  294  ;  shipping  of,  296 
Hameln,  315 
Hamm,  259  ;  W.,  202 
Hanan,  242,  254 
Hann,  J.,  123 
Hanover,  88,  103,  263 
Hanseatic    League,   131,    132,  144, 

265,  288,  292,  303 
Hanse  Towns,  252 
Harburg,  291,  294 
Hardt  Mountains,  83 
Haromsek  Basin,  48 
Hartz  Mountains,  11,  79,  87,  264, 

265,  268 
Hassert,  K.,  71 
Hauer,  F.  von,  88 
Hausruck,  the,  42,  208 
Havel,  River,  100,  280 ;  Lakes  of, 

283  ;  Lower,  10 1 
Havelberg,  278 
Havelland,  the,  loi 
Hawaii,  176 
Hegau,  81 
Heidelberg,  250 
Heilbronn,  246,  315 
Heim,  Albert,  8,  45 
Hela,  Peninsula  of,  95 
Helder,  303,  331 
Heligoland,  89,  103,  332 
Helvetian  Republic,  147 
Hemp,  198 

Henr}'  the  Lion,  144,  263 
.Hercules'  Bath,  221 
Hermann  Monument,  262 
Hermannstadt,  222 
Hermsburg,  120 
Hernad,  47  ;  Valley,  218 
Herodotus,  66 
Herzegovina,  62,  112,  152,  153,  232, 

339 
Hesperides,  24 
Hesse,  15,  80,  262  ;  Grand  Duchy 

of,  242  ;  Upper,  242 
Heuscheuer,  the,  ']^  ;  Gebirge,  78 
Hildesheim,  265 
Hochfeld,  259 


Hoch  Obir  Observatory,  25 

Hochstellen,  F.  von,  71 

Hof,  270 

Hohen  Tauern,  35,  209 

Hohentwiel,  82 

Hohenzollem  Electors,  281  ;  Prin- 
cipality of,  242 

Hohe  Rhon,  the,  262 

Holland,  105,  107,  299,  300 ;  de- 
fences of,  330 ;  Hook  of,  109, 
311;  imports  and  exports  of, 
200 ;  North  Canal,  303  ;  sea 
traffic  of,  7  ;  waterways  of,  314 

Hollandsh  Deep,  109 

Holstein,  146  ;  Forden  of,  97 

Homberg,  257 

Homer,  166 

Hond  River,  309 

Hops,  177 

Horses,  166 

Hortobagy,  Pusta  of,  166 

Hospodars,  155,  239 

Hungary,  7,  48,  115,  141,  221; 
people  of,  140;  plain  of,  5,  13, 
I9>  53»  116,  120,222  ;  sand  dunes 
of,  54  ;  Southern,  132  ;  Upper, 
valley  formations,  50 ;  wines  of, 

Huns,  the,  140 

I  BAR  Valley,  63 

Ice  Age,  93  ;  on  easterly  rivers  of 

Germany,  114 
Idria,  207 
Iglau,  216 
Ij  Here,  302 

Ij,  Lake  of,  108  ;  River,  302 
Ijmuiden,  Fort  of,  330 
111  River,  249 
Iller  River,  43,  122 
Illyria,  underground  drainage  of,  61 
Illyrian  chains,  57 
Illyrians,  the,  2 
Incas,  the,  171 
India,  198,  230 

Ingolstadt,  44  ;  Fortress  of,  332 
Inn  River,  34,  35,  38,  43  ;  Valley  of, 

22 
Innsbruck,  209 
Inster  River,  98 
Interlaken,  30 
Iron,  186  ;   Gates,  7,  47,  55  ;  ore, 

198  ;  trade,  195 
Isar  River,  41,  193,  243 
Ischl,  207 


350 


INDEX 


Is^re,  Valley  of,  17 
Iser  Gebirge,  215 
Iserlohn,  259,  260 
Isker  River,  65,  66,  68    • 
Isonzo  River,  57 
Istein,  332 
I  stria,  116,  228 
Ivangorod,  32)7 
Ivan  Pass,  62 
Ixelles,  307 

Jablunka  Pass,  47,  137,  151,  217 

Jade  Bay,  107,  108,  296 

Jagello,  149 

Jagerndorf,  217 

Japan,  230 

Jasmund  Island,  96 

Jassy,  239 

Jaufen,  the,  209 

Jena,  269 

Jews,  1^2 

Jirecek,  Constantine,  240 

Joux,  Lac  du,  27 

Jura,  the,  3,  27,  72,  80 ;  Passes,  329 ; 

Swabian,  81 
Jute,  199 
Jutland,  3,  93  ;  dunes  of,  106 

Kahlenberg,  44 

Kaiserslauten,  83 

Kaiserstuhl,  the,  250 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  107,  314 

Kalusz,  219 

Kamtshik  River,  67 

Kanitz,  240 

Karlsruhe,  83 

Karlstadt,  38,  56 

"  Karren,"  the,  39,  58 

Karst,   the,    38,    57,    59»    "6,   117, 

227,  228 
Kaschau,  222 
Katwijk,  301 
Katzenbuckel,  the,  83 
Kazanlik,  67 
Kehdirgen,  107 
Keilhack,  K.,  88,  91,  iii 
Kelheim,  127 
Kempen,  102 
Kerka  River,  61 
Kiel,  98,  129,  289,  314,333 
Kielce,  73 
Kiepert,  9 
Kiev,  218,  219,338 
Kilia  River,  70 
Kimpolung,  162 


Kinzig,  Valley,  251 

Kirchhoff,  A.,  8,  142,  275 

Klagenfurt,  209  ;  basin,  38 

Klausenburg,  222 

Kloster  Neuberg,  44 

Klosters,  34 

Knes,  154 

Kohl,  F.  G.,  220,  213 

KoUn-Berlin,  281 

Komorn,  224,  225 

Konigsberg,  284, 285,  315,  333,  334, 

336  ;  sea  canal,  284 
Konigsee,  Lake,  40 
Konigshiitte,  275 
Konigstein,  virgin  fortress  of,  jj 
Kosel,  103,  274,  294,  315 
Kostendil,  64 
Kottbus,  135 
Kovno,  334 
Krauske,  Mary,  322 
Kremnitz,  222 
Kronstadt,  48,  222 
Krupp  steel  works,  195 
Kulmerland,  the,  135 
Kulpa  River,  56 
Kumania,  53 
Kunkels  Pass,  33 
Kurische  Haff,  94 
Kurische  Nehrung,  94 
Kusa,  Alexander,  157 

Laach,  Lake,  86 

Lace  industry,  197 

La  Chaux  de  Fonds,  206 

Lahn  River,  85,  258,  262 

Laibach,  20,  209  ;  basin,  38 

Landeshut,  78 

Landeskrone,  273 

Landquart,  34 

Landguard,  35 

Laufifen  Rapids,  193 

Lausanne,  206 

Lauvers  Zee,  108 

Lead,  195,  207 

Lebanon,  198 

Lech  River,  43,  193,  243 

Lechfeld,  the,  243 

Legrad,  56 

Lehesten,  269 

Lehmann,  Paul,  8  ;  R.,  275 

Leine  River,  88,  264  ;  Valley  of,  So 

Leipzig,  90,  266,  267  ;  battlefield  of, 

341  ;  lowland  bay  of,  279  ;  fair» 

267  ;  University  of,  267 
Leitha,  45 


INDEX 


35^ 


Leitmeritz,  75 

Lek  River,  109 

Leman,  I.^ke,  205 

Lemberg,  137,  219 

Lenczyce,  loi 

Lenz,  Heath  of,  33 

Leoben,  208 

Lepsius,  Richard,  9,  88 

Levantine  Merchant  Service,  238 

Leyden,  302 

Libau,  93,  283 

Li^ge,  '85,  305,  306,  307,  330  ; 
Bishopric  of,  148 

Liegnitz,  273 

Lignite,  208 

Liguria,  Gulf  of,  210 

Ligurian  Sea,  72 

Limburg,  307 

Limmat,  the,  28 

Linden,  264 

Linz,  44,  75,  210 

Lippe  River,  88 

Lisbon,  281 

Lissa,  Island  of,  340 

Lithuania,  100 

Lithuanians,  the,  134 

Lombard  Lakes,  33 

Lombardy,  36 

Lorn  Palanka,  66 

London,  212,  281 

Lorch,  127 

Lorelei,  85 

Lorraine,  3,  83,  146,  242,  255  ;  con- 
quest of,  242 

Lotharingia,  298 

Lotschen  Pass,  206 

Louis  the  Fourteenth,  145,  250 

Louisiana,  176 

Lowerz,  Lake,  28 

Lubbock,  Sir  J.,  46 

Liibeck.  93,  264,  288,  289,  292 

Lucerne,  206  ;  Lake  of,  24,  29,  30, 

Luciensteig,  Fortress  of,  329 

Ludovic  Canal,  81,  316 

Ludwigsburg,  246 

Ludwigshafen,  252 

Lugau,  271 

Lugano,  Lake,  19,  36,  207 

Lukmanier  Pass,  32 

Liineburg,  103  ;  Heath,    103,    104, 

277 
Luneville,  331 
Lusatia,  15,  215,  273 
Lussin,  60  ;  Piccolo,  113 


Luxemburg,  83,   148,  256  ;   Grand 

Duchy  of,  148 
Lyons,  21 
Lys  River,  308 

Maars,  the,  86 

Maas  River,  109 

Maaseyk,  148 

Macedonia,  63,  237  ;  Empire  of, 
236  ;  Mountains  of,  65 

Macugnaga,  32 

Maestricht,  257,  301 

Magdeburg,  264,  265  ;  Arch- 
bishopric of,  266 

Maggiore,  Lake,  19 

Magyars,  the,  4,  128,  138,  140,  152, 
226 

Mahomedans,  the,  152,  233 

Main  River,  79,  85,  126,  241,  245, 

247 
Maize,  115,  171 
Malapane  River,  257,  277 
Maloggia  Pass,  34 
Mandra,  Mount,  50 
Manicheans,  the,  233 
Mannheim,  84,  174,  252 
Mansfeld,  87,  268 
Marburg,  262,  263 
March  River,  47,  74;  Valley,  21 1 
Marcus  Aurelius,  3 
Margraves,  the,  251,  277 
Maria  Theresa,  226 
Marienbad,  Springs  of,  182 
Marienburg,  285 
Maritza  River,  64,  65,  236 
Mark,  the,  280,  281,  282 
Marmarosh  River,  129 
Mame     River,     82 ;     and     Rhine 

Canal,  257 
Marosh  River,  48,  55,  222 
Marseilles,  212 
Martigny,  31 
Massalia,  3,  211 
Masuria,  98,  135,  284,  297,  334 
Matlekovitz,  A.  von,  277 
Maxan,  251 

Mayence,  82,  83,  84,  252,  253,  332 
Mecklenburg,  99,  130,  287  ;  Lakes 

of,  99 
Mediterranean,  1,2;  vegetation,  24 
Meerane,  271 

Meissen,  271  ;  Mark  of,  130 
Melk,  42 
Mellingen,  30 
Melnik,  75,  215 


352 


INDEX 


Memel,  3,  93,  94,  m,  284,  334 
Mendelssohn,  8 
Mera,  34 

Meran,  37,  209  ;  Valley  of,  24 
Merwede  Canal,  303  ;  River,  109 
Metkovits,  62,  313 
Metz,  83,  255,  327  ;  bishopric  of, 
235  ;   fortress   of,   331  ;   hills   of, 

83 
Meuse  River,  3,  109  ;  Valley,  85, 

305 
Meyer,  Hans,  142 
Mezieres,  86 
Middelburg,  304 

Middle  Ages,   145,   183,  205,  211, 
216,  229,  242,  243,  250,  253,  265, 
283,  308,  309 
Milan,  33,  259 
Minden,  88,  263 
Mineral  products,  180 
Miskolcz,  223 
Mitrovitza,  64,  234 
Mittel  Gebirge,  2,  89,  90,  193 
Moen,  97 

Mogontiacum,  249 
Mojsisovic,  E.  von,  46,  71 
Moldau  River,  48,  74,  75,  238 
Moldavia,  155 
Mons,  306 

Mont  Blanc,  25,  26,  32 
Mont  Cenis,  318 
Mont  Credo,  27 
Monte  Rosa,  26,  32 
Monte  Viso,  26 
Montbeliard,  316 

Montenegrins,  the,  139 

Montenegro,    62,    153,    232,    339; 
Highlands  of,  57,  62 

Morava  River,  65,  235  ;  Valley,  63, 
64 

Moravia,  13,  74  ;  Southern,  130 

Moravian  Gap  or  Gate,  13,  79,  8g, 
90,  211  ;  Ostrau,  216  ;  Plain,  47 

Moschin,  loi 

Moscow,  212,  281 

Moselle  River,  3,  12,  83,  85 

Mostar,  112,  232,  339 

Mottlau  River,  286 

Mounier,  Mount,  25 

Miihlheim,  259,  260 
•Miilhausen,  250,  316 

Miillenhoff,  142 

Miinchen-Gladbach,  259 

Munich,  41,  43,  112,  193,  243,  323 

Munkacs,  165 


Muotta  River,  28 

Mur  River,  36,  210  ;  Valley,  23,  210 

Miirz  River,  210 

Myslowitz,  275,  334 

Naab  River,  74 

Nagy,  Hagj^mash,  48 

Namalossa,  339 

Namur,  86,  305,  330 

Nancz,  331 

Naples,  140 

Napoleon,  143,  145,  203,  230,  231, 

337 
Napoleonic  Wars,  167 
Narenta  River,  233,  313  ;  Valley,  62 
Narew  River,  3,  99,  100,  337 
Nationalities,  diagram  of,  141 
Naumburg,  268 
Nauportus,  210 
Neckar  River,  79,  241,  245,  252  ; 

falls  of,  193 
Neisse  River,  78  ;  Valley,  273 
Ner  River,  loi 
Nethe  River,  330 
Netherlands,    92,    109,     147,    298, 

327  ;  Habsburg,  148 
Netze  River,  3,  100,  278  ;  Valley, 

102 
Neuchatel,  206 
Neuenburg,  30 
Neufahr,  285 
Neufahrwasser,  93,  285 
Neumarkt,  Pass  of,  210 
Neumayr,  M.,  15 
Neusatz,  226 
Neuss,  261 
Neustadt,  Gulf  of,  97 
Neutra  River,  53 
Neuwerk  Island,  107 
Nied  River,  83 
Niemen  River,  3,  94,  283 
Nimeguen,  301 
Nissa,  65,  138,  235 
Noe,  45 

Nogat  River,  285 
Nordhausen,  268 
Nordlingen,  81 
"  Noric  blade,"  207 
North    German    Lloyd    Steamship 

Company,  295 
North  Sea,  78,  no,  114,  314  ;  and 

Baltic     Canal,    289,    303,    332  ; 

fisheries,  311  ;  lowlands  of,  104, 
no 
Novi  Bazar,  234 


INDEX 


353 


Novo  Georgiewsk,  337 
Nuremberg,  81,  247 
Nyir,  53 

Oberland  Canal,  285 

Ober-Wiesenthal,  271 

Obra  River,  10 1,  278 

Odenwald,  the,  80,  83 

Oder  River,  47,  92,  95,   icx3,   loi, 

273.  279,  336  ;  swamp,  102 
Oderberg,  99,  100,  217 
Odessa,  i,  219,  281 
Oelsnitz,  271 
Ofen,  225 
Offenbach,  254 
Ohre  River,  103 
Oil-Springs,  190 
Oisans,  the,  26 
Okhotsk,  Sea  of,  161 
Olbia,  3,  211 
Olmiitz,  216 
Oppenheim,  84 
Orbe,  the,  27 
Orkhanie,  67 
Orkney  Islands,  iii 
Orshova,  56,  193 
Ortler,  35 
Osma  River,  68 
Osnabriick,  88,  263 
Ostend,  3,311 
Osterwald,  the,  263 
Ostmark,  the,  130,  211 
Otto  the  Great,  140 
Ottoman  Empire,  152 
Ovid,  68 
Ozokerit,  190 

Pago,  60 

Palatinate,  the,  74,  241 

Pannonia,  224 

Papenburg,  105 

Paris,  281  ;  congress  of,  156 

Partsch,  J.,  275 

Pas  de  Calais,  1 10 

Passau,  43,  44,  241 

Pax,  Ferdinand,  56 

Penck,  A.,  8,  15,  46,  213 

Peschel,  O.,  202 

Peters,  K.,  71 

Peterwardein,  226 

Petrosheny  Valley,  50 

Pfander,  the,  18 

Pfeffers,  33 

Pforzheim,  248 

Phanariot  Greeks,  156 


Philip  the  Second,  299 

Philippines,  176 

Philippopolis,  65,  155,  236 

Phosphorus,  186 

Piedmont,  19,  24,  36 

Pig-iron,  186,  198 

Pigs,  168 

Pillau,  I,  94 

Pillauer  Deep,  334 

Pilsen,  76,  215  ;  coal-beds  of,  74 

Pinzgau,  40 

Pipe  manufacture,  198 

Pirna,  271 

Pistyan,  221 

Pitt,  William,  330 

Plansee,  Lake,  40 

Platt-Deutsch  dialect,  133 

Platten  Sea  (see  Balaton  Lake) 

Plauen,  270 

Pleisse  River,  267 

Plon  Lake,  99 

Plums,  179 

Po,  Plain  of,  24 

Podolia,  72  ;  Plain  of,  218 

Pola,  120,  230,  340 

Poland,  3,  102,  137,  149,  217,  279; 

Mountains  of,  ^2) 
Poles,  the,  157,  151 
Polish  Immigration,  136 
"Polye"  Valleys,  60 
Pomerania,  3,  94,  95  ;  Boddens  of, 

96  ;  Hither,  288  ;  Western,  287 
Pontebba,  Pass  of,  38 
Pontic  basin,  i,  13  ;  watershed,  37 
Pontresina,  35 
Poprad,  Valley  of,  50 
Porte,  the,  1 54,  1 56 
Porto  Rico,  176 
Portuguese  discoveries,  310 
Posen,  103,  278,  279 ;  Fortress  of, 

335.  336 
Potatoes,  176,  178 
Potsdam,  282,  283 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  the,  299 
Prague,  75»  78,  215,  294,  315 
Pregel  River,  94 
Pressburg,  224 
Pripet  River,  338 
Prosna  River,  102 
Prussia,  130,  146;  East,  94,  98,  283; 

shipping  of,  296 
Pruth  River,  47, 69,  71, 238;  Valley, 

73 
Przemysl,  137,  338  ;  Fortress  of,  218 
Pusta,  the,  54 


354 


INDEX 


Pusterthal,  37 

QUARNERO,  120  ;  River,  230 

Quedlinburg,  265 
Quels,  the,  273 
Quicksilver,  207 

Raab  River,  53  ;  Valley,  210 

Raduyevats,  235 

Raetia,  Roman  limes  of,  127 

Ragatz,  33 

Ragusa,  7,  62,  113,  120,  231 

Railway  systems,  317 

Rainfall,  119 

Ratisbon,  42,  244,  315 

Ratzel,  F.,  160 

Rauhe  Alb,  241 

Raurica,  colony  of,  249 

Ravenstein,  L.,  45 

Reformation,  the,  132,  145 

Regel,  Fritz,  275 

Regnitz  River,  81,  316 

Rehmann,  56 

Reichenhall,  208  ;  brine  springs  of, 
182 

Reichenau,  33 

Reichenberg,  215 

Remscheid,  259,  260 

Reschen  Scheideck,  35 

Retyezat,  Mount,  50 

Reuss,  the,  28,  31 

Rhaetia,  frontier  of,  127 

Rhaetian  Alps,  25 

Rheingau,  the,  84,  126,  242 

Rhenish  Mountains,  3 

Rhine  River,  2,  3,  14,  15,  27,  31, 
33,  109,  114,  123,  143,  249,  251, 
256,  304,  331  ;  mountains  of,  79, 
82,  85  ;  rapids  of,  193  ;  upper 
lowland  of,  82,  116,  248;  plain 
of,  84;  and  Rhone  Canal,  316; 
and  Marne  Canal,  257  ;  valleys, 
33,  208 

Rhodope,  236 

Rhon,  the,  80 

Rhone  River,  i,  13,  27,  31,  123; 
Glacier,  21  ;  and  Rhine  Canal, 
316 

Richter,  Edward,  46,  240 

Rienz,  38 

Ries  Valley,  127,  243 

Riesen-Gebirge,  78,  215 

Rigi,  the,  18,  30 

Rila  Mountain,  64 

Ringstrasse,  the,  213 


Riviera,  the,  113 

Rixdorf,  282 

Rodna  Mountains,  49 

Rokitno,  163 

Roman   Empire,  4,  126,   128,  141, 

143,  154,  258  ;  limes  of  Germania 

and  Raetia,  127  ;  roads,  66 
Romanic  tongue,  255 
Romans,  the,  4,  125,  126,  161,  211, 

249,  258 
Rome,  230,  231,  281 
Romer,  E.  von,  56 
Romer,  F.,  15 
Rosaliengebirg,  45 
Rosengarten,  37 
Rosenheim,  208 
Rostock,  288 
Rothschilds,  the,  254 
Rotterdam,  109,  163,  302,  304 
Roumania,  116,  156,  157,  239,  338  ; 

basin  of,  45  ;  loess  terrace  of,  69 
Roumanians,  the,  128,  129 
Roumelia,  236 
Riidersdorf,  89 
Riidesheim,  85 

Rudolf,  Crown  Prince,  142,  213,240 
Riigen,  89,  97  ;  Island,  96 
Ruhla,  198,  270 
Ruhr  Valley,  85 
Ruhrort,  259 
Rupel  River,  308,  330 
Russia,  94,  102,  149,  150,  328 
Russian  Empire^  333,  337 
Rustchuk,  339 
Ruthenians,  the,  138 
Ruyter,  163 
Rye,  172 

Saale  River,  12,  79 

Saalfield,  90,  269 

Saar  River,  11,  83,  257  ;  Valley,  85 

Saarbriicken,  85  ;  coalfield  of,  257 

Sabioncello  Peninsula,  62 

"  Sachsenganger,"  136 

St.  Bernard,  Great,  32  ;  obser- 
vatory, 25  ;  Little,  32 

St.  Gallen,  204,  206 

St.  George  River,  70 

St.  Gotthard,  32,  329 ;  railway,  320  ; 
tunnels,  319 

St.  Maurice  Valley,  21 

St.  Petersburg,  281 

Salona,  231 

Salonica,  64,  152  ;  and  Belgrade 
railway,  64 


INDEX 


355 


Salt,  183,  204 
Salzach,  38,  43 
Salzburg,  39,  207,  209 
Salzkammergut,  40  ;  brine  springs 

of,  182  ;  salt  mines  of,  207 
Salzwedel,  280 
Samartian  Jazyges,  140 
Sambor,  90 
Sambre  River,  85 
Samland,  Cape,  94  ;  Plateau,  98 
San  River,  47,  218 
San  Bernardino  Pass,  32,  33 
Sand  dunes,  Hungarian,  54 
Sandomirz,  3,  73 
Sanssouci,  Castle  of,  283 
Saone  River,  13 
Saorgio,  24 
Sarayero,  339 
Sargans,  28 
Save   River,  56,  57,  226  ;    Valley, 

19,  23 
Saverne,  Pass  of,  82 
Savoy,  17,  28 
Saxe-Meiningen,  270 
Saxon,  Lower,  dialect,  133 
Saxons,  the,  129,  143 
Saxony,  it,  12,  76,  89,  103 
Saxony,  Electors  of,  267 
Scandinavia,  1 5,  90,  92 
Scania,  97 
Schafberg,  40 
SchaflThausen,  26,  30,  205 
Schandau,  90 
Schaumburg-Lippe,  263 
Scheldt  River,  no,  307,  308,  309, 

330 
Schemnitz,  222 
Schimper,  202 
Schlern,  37 
Schleswig,  92,  98,   107,    112,   146; 

Holstein,  99,  288,  290  ;    Danes 

of,  134. 
Schmollnitz,  222 
Schneeberg,  the,  69,  214 
Schneekoppe  Mountain,  78 
Schober  Pass,  210 
Schonborn-Buchheim,  Count,  165 
Schoneberg,  282 
Schwarzenberg,  Prince,  165 
Schwaz,  207 
Schweizerhall,  204 
Schwerin,  99,  288 
Schwyz,  28 
Schyn  Pass,  33 
Scotch  firs,  164 
24 


Scutari,  138  ;  Lake,  232 

Scyl  River,  50 

Sebenico,  61,  231 

Sedan,  86 

Segeberg,  100 

Seged,  223 

Segedin,  55 

Seignobos,  C,  160 

Seine  River,  i,  6 

Semlin,  226 

Semmering,  1 7  ;  Pass,  38  ;  railway, 
210 

Sempach,  Lake,  29 

Senne  River,  307 

Semis  Observatory,  25 

Septimer  Pass,  33 

Seraing,  306 

Serdica,  236,  237 

Sereth  River,  69,  238 

Servia,  154,  233  ;  limestone  moun- 
tains of,  65  ;  primitive  mountains 
and  main  valleys  of,  63  ;  Church 

of,  154 

Servians,  the,  139 

Seven  Years'  War,  149,  150 

'sGravenhage,  302 

Shar  Dagh,  69 

Sheep,  169 

Shetland  Islands,  in 

Shipka  Pass,  67 

Shumla,  339 

Sieben-Gebirge,  85 

Sigmaringen,  81 

Silesia,  11,  12,  73,  89,  102,  103, 
13O5  273  ;  conquest  of,  145  ;  coal 
measures,  73 

Silistria,  70,  339 

Silk,  198,  199 

Silver,  184,  207 

Simplon  Pass,  32  ;  Tunnel,  318 

Sinaya,  239 

Siscia,  227 

Sissek,  56,  227 

Slavonic  peoples,  129,  134  ;  place- 
names,  130 

Slavonica,  226 

Slavs,  the,  4,  138,  149,  151 

Slivnitsa,  339 

Slovaks,  the,  49,  1 38 

Slovenes,  the,  139 

Sluys,  304 

Sobieski,  John,  218 

Sofia,  65,  236,  237,  339  ;  Plain  of,  65 

Solferino,  battle  of,  36 

Solingen,  260 


356 


INDEX 


Soiling,  the,  80 

Solnhofen  Stone,  190 

Sonneberg,  269 

Sonnblic  Observatory,  25 

Sormonne,  Valley  of,  86 

Spain,  299 

Spalato,  7,  231 

Spandau,  loi,  278,  282 

Speer,  the,  18 

Sperenberg,  183 

Spessart,  the,  80 

Spirding,  Lake,  99 

Spires,  252 

Spitzbergen,  292 

Spizza,  232 

Splugen  Pass,  19,  33 

Spree  River,  101 

Spreewald,  loi 

Springs,  hot  and  mineral,  181 

Spruner-Menke,  160 

Sredna  Gora,  the,  236 

Stara  Planina,  66 

Starnberg,  Lake  of,  41 

Stecknitz  Canal,  289 

Steinhuder  Meer  Cape,  104 

Stelvio,  35 

Stephen  Dushan  (King),  154 

Sterzing,  209 

Stettin,  I,  93,  285,  287 

Stieler,  9 

Stockholm,  281 

Stone,  190 

Strassburg,   82,  84,  250,  251,  252, 

315,  332  ;  Fortress  of,  331 
Strassfurt,  183 
Struma  River,  64 
Stubben  Kammer,  96 
Stuhlvveissenburg,  224,  225 
Stuttgart,  246 
Styria,  207 
Sudetes,  11,  14 
Sudetic  Mountains,  74,  75,  90 
Suess,  E.,  15,  45 
Suez  Canal,  230 
Sugar,  175 
Sulina,  116, 238  ;  River,  70 ;  estuary 

of,  238 
Suntel  Ridge,  88 
Supan,  A.,  8,  123 
Suwalki,  137 
Swabia,  28,  80,  82 
Swabians,  the,  129,  144,  241,  254 
Sweden,  93,  198,  295 
Swinemunde,  93,  287 
Swiss  Confederation,  144,  147,  203 


Switzerland,  13,  17,  25,  26,  203, 
^7y  ;  defences  of,  329  ;  imports 
and  exports  of,  200  ;  Saxon,  77  ; 
textile  industries  of,  204 

Sylt,  290 

Tacitus,  124,  125 

Tagliamento,  38  ;  Valley,  22 

Tamina,  Lesser,  33 

Tarento,  140 

Tarnopol,  219 

Tarnowitz,  275 

Tartar  Bazardjik,  236 

Tartars,  the,  140 

Tatra,  the  high,  49,  221  ;  Moun- 
tains, 50 

Taunus,  the,  86 

Tavern,  37,  207 

Temesh  Comitat,  54 

Temeshvar,  129,  223 

Tenda,  24 

Teplitz,  215  ;  springs  of,  182 

Terneuzen,  308 

Ternova,  67 

Teschen,  217 

Teutoburger  Wald,  88 

Teutonic  Order,  the,  130,  132,  144, 
149,  285 

Teutons,  the,  4,  125 

Texel,  108,  III 

Thames  River,  6 

Thaya  River,  216 

Theiss  River,  47,  54 

Thionville,  255 

Thirty  Years'  War,  145,  167,  244 

Thorn,  218,278,294,  3'5>335,336; 
Valley,  100 

Thrace,  138 

Thuringia,  11,  14,  268 

Thuringian  Forest,  14,  79,  90 ; 
porcelain  trade  of,  269 

Thuringians,  the,  129 

Thurmberg,  99 

Thusis,  33 

Ticino,  25,  36,  207 

Tiefenkasten,  33 

Tielze,  71 

Tietze,  E.,  71 

Tilsit,  284,  315 

Timber,  162,  163 

Timok    River,    65,    66 ;     Valley, 

139 
Tin,  198 
Toblach,  37 
Torzburg  Pass,  50 


INDEX 


357 


Toul,  Bishopric  of,  255  ;  Fortress 

of,  332 
Toula,  F.,  71 
Toy  manufacture,  197 
Trajan,  Wall  of,  128 
Travemiinde,  93 
Transleithania,  151 
Transylvania,  3,  48,  49,  128 
Traunstein,  208 
Trave  River,  289 
Trebinye,  339 
Trencsin-Teplitz,  221 
Trentino,  the,  340 
Treves,  257 
Trient,  209 
Trieste,  i,  7.   117,   139,  228,  229; 

-\'ienna  railway,  38 
Triglav,  38 

Triple  Alliance,  the,  340 
Tromp,  163 
Troppau,  217 
Tserkvitse,  120 
Tshwrstnitsa  Mountain,  63 
Tuchel,  Heath  of,  99 
Tundja  River,  65 
Turkish  Wars,  159,  212 
Turn  Severin,  55 
Turks,  the,  132,  140,  153 
Tyndall,  J.,  46 
TjTol,    207  ;    Castle   of,    24,    209, 

Southern,    25,    208  ;     Romansh 

valleys  of,  128 

Uhlig,  v.,  56 

Ulm,  43,  81,  244,  246;   Cathedral 

of,  244  ;  Fortress  of,  332 
Umlauft,  F  ,  45 
United  States,  sugar  production  of, 

176 
Ural  Mountains,  102 
Uralo-Altaic  races,  4,  139 
tJrdingen,  174 
Uri,  207 

Urserenthal,  31,  329 
Usedom  Island,  95 
Utrecht,  301 

Vadja  Hunyad,  187 
Valachs,  the,  128 
Valais,  the,  22,  23,  31,  207 
Val  d'Aosta,  32 
Valenciennes,  86 
Valteline,  35,  36 
Vand,  23 
Varangians,  the,  i 


Varna,  68,  237,  339 

Vecht  River,  301 

Vedretta  Marmolata,  37 

Veglia,  60 

Velebit  Mountains,  60,  231 

Veluwe,  the,  301 

Venedas,  the,  125 

Venediger,  the,  35,  69 

Venetian  Alps,  25 

Venice,  37,  38,  229,  259 

Verdun,  Bishopric  of,  255  ;  Fortress 

of,  332  ;  Treaty  of,  298 
Verona,  37 
Verviers,  306 
Vespasian,  127 
Via  Mala,  33 
Vid  River,  68 
Vienna,  38,  210,  323  ;  basin  of,  45  ; 

congress  of,  147,  299,  303,  326  ; 

Czechs  in,  136;  Trieste  railway,  38 
Vienne,  21 
Vilna,  334 
Vindobona,  211 
Vindonissa,  206 
Vineyards,  178 
Vishegrad,  Castle  of,  53,  224 
Vistula  River,  2,  3,  47,  71,  94,  100, 

loi,   218,   278,    283,    285,    337; 

Delta  of,  286  ;  and  Haff  Canal, 

286  ;  Valley  of,  284 
Vitosha,  the,  64 
Vladika,  the,  153 
Vladivostock,  281 
Vogel-Gebirge,  262 
Vogel,  Carl,  9 
Vogelsberg,  the,  80 
Vogtland,  76,  270 
Vorarlberg,  the,  207,  208 
Vosges,  the,  3,  82 
Vranya,  235 

Waag  River,  47, 53 ;  Valley,  211,218 

Waal  River,  109 

Wagrien  Peninsula,  129 

Wahner,  46 

Wahnschaffe,  1 1 1 

Waitzen,  53 

W^alchensee,  Lake,  40 

Walcheren,  1 10,  304,  309 

Waldeck,  262 

Waldenburg  coal  basin,  78,  273 

Wallachia,  155,  238 

Wallenstadt,  Lake,  28 

VVandsbeck,  294 

Wangen,  29 


358 


INDEX 


Wangeroog,  io8 

Warming,  202 

Warnemiinde,  288 

Warsaw,  100,  278,  334,  337  ;  basin 

of,  lOI 
Warta    River,    3,    73,     100,    278  ; 

Valley,  102 
Watch-making,  197 
Water-power,  192 
Waterloo,  battlefield  of,  307 
Watzmann,  Lake,  40 
Weaving  industry,  197 
Weide  River,  102 
Weimar,  269 
Wekelsdorf,  TJ 
Welna  River,  279 
Wendish  tongue,  272 
Wends,  the,  135 
Werdau,  271 
Werra  River,  262 
Wertach  River,  243 
Wesel,  332 
Weser  River,  12,  79,  88,  103,  104, 

108, 261,  263,295, 332  J  Mountains 

of,  87 
Westerwald,  the,  126  ;  Plains  of,  85 
Westphalia,  11 
Westphalian  Gate,  88,  104 
Wetterau,  the,  126 
Wetterstein  Gebirge,  39 
Wheat,  170,  172,  174 
White  Korosh  River,  222 
Widdin,  138,  339 
Wiehen-Gebirge,  263 
Wieliczka,  151,  183,  218 
Wienerwald,  the,  18,  44,  47 
Wieringen  Island,  108 
Wiesbaden,  85,  113,  162,  253 
Wiese,  Valley  of,  248 
Wilhelmshaven,  108,  296,  332 
Wind-power,  192 
Wine,  178,  179,  181 


Winkler,  Heinrich,  227 
Wire-drawing,  197 
Wiskola,  47 
Witkowitz,  216 
Witten,  260 
Wittenberg,  257,  277 
Wolfratshausen,  41 
Wollin  Island,  95 
Wool,  169,  198 
Worms,  252 
Wornitz  River,  81 
Worth,  Lake,  38 
Wupper  River,  260 
Wursten,  107 
Wiirtemberg.  242 
Wiirzburg,  178,  247 
Wutach,  Valley  of,  248 

Yamboli,  67 

Yantra  Valley,  67 

Ypres,  308 

Yumruktshal  Mountain,  67 

Yverdon,  193 

Yssel  River,  109,  301 

Zara,  231  ;  coast  of,  60 

Zbrug  River,  72 

Zealand,  304,  311 

Zeuss,  142 

Zillerthal,  35 

Zimmermann,  E.,  88 

Zinc,  185,  195,  207 

Zweck,  A.,  297 

Zopport,  94 

Zug,  Lake,  28 

Zugspitze,  39  ;  Observatory,  25 

Zujovic,  71 

Zurich,  204,  206  ;  Lake,  28,  30 

Zuyder  Zee,  104,  107,  108,  301,  302, 

3o3>  311 
Zweibriicken,  83 
Zwickau,  "jt,  270,  271 


(1) 


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serve a  main  line  of  connection  from  century  to  century  throughout  the  narrative." — 
Philadelphia  Ledger. 

A     French    Volunteer     of    the    War     of 
Independence. 

By  the  Chevalier  de  Pontgibaud.  Translated  and  edited  by  Robert  B. 
Douglas.      With  Introduction  and  Frontispiece.      i2mo.      Cloth,  $1.50. 

D.    APPLETON   AND    COMPANY,    NEW    YORK. 


J-^  "X^ 


A     000  679  078    6 


